Nationalism in India — Notes

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

The period after 1919 witnessed a significant expansion of the national movement in India. It incorporated new social groups and saw the development of new methods of struggle. This transformation was largely shaped by the aftermath of the First World War and its impact on India's economic and political landscape.

Impact of the First World War on India

The First World War (1914-1918) created severe hardships in India.

• Increased Defence Expenditure: The war led to a massive rise in defence spending by the British government.
• Financing the War: This expenditure was funded through:
• War Loans: People were compelled to contribute to war loans.
• Increased Taxes: New taxes were introduced, and existing ones were raised.
• Customs Duties: These were increased.
• Income Tax: This was introduced for the first time.
• Rising Prices: Between 1913 and 1918, prices of essential goods doubled, causing extreme hardship to common people.
• Forced Recruitment: Villages were pressured to supply soldiers for the war. This forced recruitment (known as 'the recruitment drive') in rural areas generated widespread anger.
• Economic Hardship and Famine:
• In 1918-19 and 1920-21, crop failures occurred in many parts of India, leading to severe food shortages.
• This was compounded by an influenza epidemic.
• The census of 1921 recorded 12 to 13 million deaths due to famines and the epidemic.

People had hoped that their suffering would end with the war. However, the post-war situation did not bring the expected relief. It was in this context of widespread discontent that a new leader, Mahatma Gandhi, emerged with a new approach to struggle.

The Khilafat Issue

The Khilafat issue provided an opportunity for Mahatma Gandhi to bring different communities together.

• The Caliph: The Ottoman Sultan was the Caliph, the spiritual head of the Muslim world.
• War and Dissatisfaction: During the First World War, the Ottoman Empire had been defeated. There were rumours that the British government would impose a harsh treaty on the Caliph.
• Indian Muslims' Concerns: Indian Muslims were agitated by this possibility, as they respected the Caliph. They wanted the British to leave the Caliph's territories and the control over holy places.
• Khilafat Committee: A Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
• Gandhi's Role: Mahatma Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims. He supported the Khilafat movement and urged the Congress to campaign for the Khilafat rights along with the demand for Swaraj (self-rule).
• Ali Brothers: Leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali (known as the Ali Brothers) had already begun to rally mass support for the Khilafat issue.

Remember

The Khilafat issue was about defending the temporal power of the Ottoman Sultan, who was also the Caliph, a figure revered by many Indian Muslims.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might provide a statement about the agitation among Muslims regarding the Ottoman Empire's fate. You would need to connect this to the Khilafat issue and Gandhi's strategy of Hindu-Muslim unity.

The Idea of Non-Cooperation

Mahatma Gandhi proposed the Non-Cooperation Movement as a new mode of struggle.

• Concept: Gandhi argued that if Indians refused to cooperate with the British, the British administration in India would collapse.
• Why Non-Cooperation? Gandhi believed that British rule in India was established with the cooperation of Indians themselves. If Indians withdrew this cooperation, British rule would become impossible.
• The Movement's Goal: The initial goal was to achieve Swaraj within the British Empire. However, Gandhi envisioned a more gradual process for Non-Cooperation:

1. Surrender of Titles: Indians should give up titles and honours bestowed by the British.
2. Boycott of Civil Services: Boycott of the civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
3. Non-violent Civil Disobedience: If the government used repression, a full-scale civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

• Calcutta Session (1920): At the Congress session in Calcutta in December 1920, Gandhi's proposal for Non-Cooperation was adopted. The movement was to be implemented gradually.

Remember

Non-Cooperation was not just about passive resistance; it was an active withdrawal of support from the colonial government at all levels.

Exam-smart

You might be asked to explain the rationale behind Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement. The answer should focus on the idea that British rule was sustained by Indian cooperation, and withdrawing this cooperation would cripple the administration.

The Idea of Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. He had previously lived in South Africa, where he developed and successfully employed a new method of mass agitation called Satyagraha.

The Meaning of Satyagraha

• Satyagraha is a philosophy and practice that emphasizes the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
• It suggests that a struggle for justice, if true, does not require physical force or violence against the oppressor.
• The core idea is to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor by persuading them to see the truth, rather than forcing them through violence.
• The struggle, based on non-violence, aims for the ultimate triumph of truth.
• Gandhi believed that the dharma of non-violence could serve as a unifying force for all Indians.

How Satyagraha Works

• Non-violence: The central principle is the complete absence of violence. This means not retaliating with physical force, even when provoked.
• Truth-seeking: The struggle is rooted in the pursuit of truth and justice. Participants must be convinced of the righteousness of their cause.
• Appealing to Conscience: The goal is to make the oppressor understand the injustice of their actions. This is achieved through peaceful persuasion, moral pressure, and civil disobedience.
• Self-Suffering: Satyagrahis may have to endure suffering themselves (e.g., imprisonment, physical harm) to demonstrate the sincerity of their cause and awaken the oppressor's conscience.
• No Vengeance: The aim is not to defeat or punish the oppressor, but to transform them by making them recognize the truth.

Satyagraha in Action in India

Upon his return to India, Mahatma Gandhi applied the principles of Satyagraha to various movements:

• Champaran (1917): Gandhi inspired the peasants of Champaran (Bihar) to struggle against the oppressive plantation system. This system involved unfair practices by landlords and the British government against the farmers.
• Kheda (1918): In the Kheda district of Gujarat, peasants were affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic. They were unable to pay the revenue demanded by the colonial government and sought a relaxation of its collection. Gandhi supported their demand through a satyagraha.
• Ahmedabad (1918): Gandhi organized a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad. This movement likely addressed issues related to wages, working conditions, or other grievances specific to the textile industry at that time.

Remember

Satyagraha is not passive resistance; it is active, non-violent confrontation that aims to convert the oppressor through truth and love.

Exam-smart

A case study question might describe a situation of injustice (e.g., unfair taxes, exploitative labour practices) and ask how Gandhi's Satyagraha principles would be applied to resolve it, focusing on truth, non-violence, and appealing to conscience.

The Rowlatt Act

The Rowlatt Act, passed in 1919, was a highly controversial piece of legislation by the British Imperial Legislative Council. Despite strong opposition from Indian members, the Act was hurriedly enacted. Its primary purpose was to grant the government extensive powers to suppress political activities.

Key Provisions of the Rowlatt Act

• Repression of Political Activities: The Act allowed the government to curb any form of political dissent.
• Detention Without Trial: Crucially, it permitted the detention of political prisoners for up to two years without any trial or charge. This meant individuals could be imprisoned indefinitely without being proven guilty in a court of law.

Gandhiji's Response: The Rowlatt Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi viewed the Rowlatt Act as fundamentally unjust and a clear violation of civil liberties. He decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha (a form of non-violent resistance based on truth and non-violence) against this oppressive law.

• Call for Hartal: Gandhi called for a hartal on April 6, 1919. A hartal is a general strike or cessation of all business and activities as a form of protest.
• Widespread Participation: The call for a hartal resonated across India.
• Rallies were organised in various cities.
• Workers in railway workshops went on strike.
• Shops across the country were closed down.

British Reaction and Escalation of Violence

The British administration was alarmed by the widespread popular uprising and the disruption of essential services like railways and telegraph lines. Their response was to crack down on nationalist leaders and activities:

• Arrests: Local leaders, particularly in Amritsar, were arrested.
• Movement Restrictions: Mahatma Gandhi himself was barred from entering Delhi.
• Amritsar Police Firing (April 10, 1919): In Amritsar, the police fired upon a peaceful procession. This act of brutality led to widespread public anger.
• Attacks on Government Property: In retaliation to the police firing, people launched attacks on banks, post offices, and railway stations.
• Imposition of Martial Law: The British government imposed martial law in Amritsar. General Dyer took command of the situation.

The Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

The most horrific event of this period was the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre.

• The Event: On Baisakhi day, a large crowd gathered in the enclosed Jallianwalla Bagh in Amritsar. Many villagers, unaware of the martial law imposed, had come to the city for the annual fair. Some were also present to protest the government's repressive measures.
• General Dyer's Action: General Dyer, with his troops, blocked the narrow exits of the Bagh and opened fire on the unarmed crowd.
• Motive: Dyer's stated objective was to "produce a moral effect," intending to instill terror and awe in the minds of the people and satyagrahis.
• Casualties: Hundreds of innocent men, women, and children were killed.

Aftermath of the Massacre

The news of the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre sent shockwaves across north India.

• Public Outrage: Crowds took to the streets in many towns, leading to strikes, clashes with the police, and attacks on government buildings.
• Brutal Repression: The government responded with even more brutal repression:
• Satyagrahis were humiliated: forced to rub their noses on the ground, crawl on the streets, and salute all British officials.
• People were flogged.
• Villages were bombed (around Gujranwala in Punjab).

Calling Off the Movement

Witnessing the spread of violence and the government's brutal response, Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the Rowlatt satyagraha. He believed that the movement, though widespread, was still largely confined to cities and towns and needed a broader base.

Remember

The Rowlatt Act is often called the "black act" because it denied basic legal rights and was seen as a tool for political repression.

Exam-smart

A case study question might present a historical account of the Rowlatt Act's provisions and ask you to analyse the Indian nationalist response or the British government's motivations for its passage and enforcement, linking it to the concept of repression of civil liberties. You would need to explain the Act's purpose and its impact on the freedom struggle.

Why Non-cooperation?

Mahatma Gandhi's strategy of Non-cooperation was rooted in his belief that British rule in India was sustained by the cooperation of Indians themselves. In his book Hind Swaraj (1909), he argued that if Indians withdrew their cooperation, British rule would collapse, leading to swaraj (self-rule).

The Stages of Non-cooperation

Gandhiji proposed a phased approach to the Non-cooperation movement:

1. Initial Boycott: This phase involved the surrender of titles awarded by the British government. It also included a boycott of:

• Civil services
• Army
• Police
• Courts
• Legislative councils
• Schools
• Foreign goods

2. Civil Disobedience: If the government responded with repression, a full-scale civil disobedience campaign would be initiated.

Mobilisation and Congress Opposition

• Throughout the summer of 1920, Gandhiji and Shaukat Ali travelled widely, building public support for the proposed movement.
• However, many within the Indian National Congress were apprehensive. They were hesitant to boycott the council elections scheduled for November 1920.
• There was also a fear that the movement might lead to popular violence.
• A period of intense debate ("tussle") occurred within the Congress between September and December 1920.
• A compromise was eventually reached at the Nagpur session of the Congress in December 1920, and the Non-Cooperation programme was formally adopted.

Differing Strands within the Movement

The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement officially began in January 1921. It witnessed the participation of various social groups, each with its own distinct objectives and understanding of swaraj. While all responded to the call for swaraj, its meaning varied for different people.

• Boycott: A form of protest involving the refusal to engage with, associate with, or use certain people, activities, or goods. In the context of the Non-Cooperation Movement, it meant withdrawing support from British institutions and products.
• Swaraj: The Indian term for self-rule or complete independence from foreign domination.

Remember

The success of British rule, according to Gandhiji, lay in the willing or unwilling cooperation of the colonized. Withdrawing this cooperation was the core of his strategy.

Exam-smart

A case study question might present a scenario where a village community decided to stop buying foreign cloth. Students would need to identify this as an act of boycott within the Non-Cooperation movement and explain its significance as a means to economic and political pressure, linking it to the broader goal of swaraj.

The Movement in the Towns

The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, which began in January 1921, saw significant participation from various social groups in India's cities and towns. This urban phase of the movement was characterized by the active involvement of the middle class.

Middle-Class Participation and Boycott of Institutions

• Students and Educational Institutions: Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges. Headmasters and teachers also resigned from their positions, demonstrating a widespread rejection of British educational systems.
• Legal Professionals: Lawyers boycotted their legal practices, signalling a refusal to participate in the British judicial system.
• Council Elections Boycott: Most provinces boycotted the council elections. An exception was Madras, where the Justice Party (representing the non-Brahmans) chose to participate. This was a strategic decision, as they believed entering the council was a way to gain political power, which was historically dominated by Brahmans.

Economic Impact of the Boycott

The Non-Cooperation Movement had a profound impact on the economic front in urban areas:

• Boycott of Foreign Goods: There was a widespread boycott of foreign goods.
• Picketing of Liquor Shops: Liquor shops were picketed, meaning protestors blocked access to them to discourage sales.
• Burning of Foreign Cloth: Foreign cloth was publicly burnt in large bonfires, symbolizing a rejection of British economic and cultural influence.
• Trade Impact: The import of foreign cloth significantly decreased.
• Between 1921 and 1922, the value of imported cloth dropped from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore.
• Many merchants and traders refused to deal in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
• Boost to Indian Industries: As people embraced Indian textiles and discarded foreign ones, the production in Indian textile mills and by handlooms increased.

Slowdown of the Movement in Towns

Despite initial enthusiasm, the movement in the cities gradually slowed down due to several challenges:

• Cost of Khadi: Khadi (hand-spun and hand-woven cloth) was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth. This made it difficult for the poor to sustain the boycott of cheaper foreign or mill cloth.
• Lack of Alternative Indian Institutions: The boycott of British institutions (like schools, courts) required the establishment of viable alternative Indian institutions. The development of these alternatives was slow, making it hard for people to completely abandon British systems. Consequently, students and teachers gradually returned to government schools, and lawyers resumed their work in government courts.

Remember

The boycott of foreign goods and institutions was a key strategy, but its success depended on the availability and affordability of Indian alternatives, which were not always present or accessible to all sections of society.

Exam-smart

Case/source questions might present data on the decline of foreign cloth imports or the rise of Indian textile production to assess understanding of the economic impact. They could also provide a scenario about a lawyer or student joining/leaving the boycott to gauge comprehension of the challenges faced by the movement in towns.

Rebellion in the Countryside

The Non-Cooperation Movement, which began in the cities, gradually extended to the rural areas of India. It incorporated the struggles of peasants (farmers) and tribals (indigenous communities) that were emerging in different parts of the country after World War I.

The Awadh Peasant Movement

• Context: In the Awadh region (present-day Uttar Pradesh), peasants faced exploitation by talukdars (landlords) and zamindars (landowners).
• Grievances:
• Exorbitant Rents: Landlords demanded very high rents.
• Various Cesses: Additional taxes or fees were imposed.
• Begar: Peasants were forced to work on landlords' farms without any payment. This is a form of unpaid labour.
• Insecurity of Tenure: Tenants could be evicted anytime, preventing them from acquiring any rights over the leased land.
• Demands of the Peasant Movement:
• Reduction of revenue.
• Abolition of begar.
• Social boycott of oppressive landlords.
• Methods of Protest:
• Nai-Dhobi Bandhs: Panchayats (village councils) organised this to deprive landlords of the services of barbers and washermen, effectively isolating them socially and economically.
• Leadership and Organisation:
• Baba Ramchandra: A sanyasi and former indentured labourer (worked under contract in Fiji), who became a key leader.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: Started visiting villages in Awadh in 1920 to understand peasant grievances.
• Oudh Kisan Sabha: Set up in October 1920, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra. It had over 300 branches in the region by November 1920.
• Integration with Non-Cooperation: The Congress aimed to link the Awadh peasant struggle with the broader Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Radicalisation of the Movement: By 1921, the peasant movement took on forms that the Congress leadership found concerning.
• Talukdars' and merchants' houses were attacked.
• Bazaars were looted.
• Grain hoards (stored grain) were seized.
• Invocation of Gandhi: Local leaders often invoked Mahatma Gandhi's name, telling peasants that:
• No taxes were to be paid.
• Land was to be redistributed.
• This shows how Gandhi's message was interpreted and used to sanction various actions and aspirations, sometimes beyond his intended non-violent approach.
• The Rae Bareli Incident (January 1921): Police fired on peasants near Rae Bareli, leading to agitation. Jawaharlal Nehru, who was stopped from visiting the site, noted the peasants' bravery and his own momentary lapse from non-violence, highlighting the emotional intensity of the struggle.

Remember

The key difference between peasant and urban movements was the direct confrontation with landlords and the more radical methods sometimes employed in the countryside.

Exam-smart

A source could be Nehru's description of the Rae Bareli incident or a peasant's account of their grievances. You would need to identify the specific grievances, the methods used, and how the movement in the countryside differed from that in the towns, linking it to the broader national movement.

Tribal Movements

Tribal peasants also interpreted Mahatma Gandhi's message and the idea of swaraj (self-rule) in their own ways.

• The Gudem Hills Movement (Andhra Pradesh):
• Context: In the forest regions of Gudem Hills, the colonial government restricted people's access to forests.
• Grievances:
• Forest Closures: Large forest areas were closed off, preventing people from grazing cattle, collecting fuelwood, and gathering fruits.
• Denial of Traditional Rights: Their customary rights were being violated.
• Forced Labour (Begar): They were forced to contribute begar for road construction.
• Leadership:
• Alluri Sitaram Raju: A charismatic leader who claimed to possess special powers (astrology, healing, invincibility to bullets). Rebels believed he was an incarnation of God.
• Raju's Ideology:
• He was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• He persuaded people to wear khadi (hand-spun cloth) and give up drinking.
• However, he believed that force, not non-violence, was necessary for India's liberation.
• Methods of Struggle:
• Guerrilla Warfare: They carried on guerrilla warfare.
• Attacks: Rebels attacked police stations and attempted to kill British officials.
• Outcome: Raju was captured and executed in 1924, but he became a folk hero.

Remember

Unlike the Congress, tribal movements often involved militant actions and a more direct challenge to colonial authority, driven by specific local grievances related to forest laws and forced labour.

Exam-smart

A case study might present a tribal leader like Alluri Sitaram Raju and ask you to explain how his interpretation of Swaraj and methods of struggle differed from the mainstream Congress movement, connecting it to specific tribal grievances.

Key Differences in Countryside Movements

Swaraj in the Plantations

In the context of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Swaraj was understood differently by various groups across India. For plantation workers in Assam, it meant more than just political freedom; it was about the right to move freely and maintain links with their villages.

Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were confined to the tea gardens and could not leave without permission, which was rarely granted.

When news of the Non-Cooperation Movement reached them, thousands of workers defied these restrictions. They left the plantations, believing that Gandhi Raj would bring them land in their own villages. However, their journey was interrupted by a railway and steamer strike. They were apprehended by the police and subjected to brutal beatings.

These workers, like the Gudem rebels who engaged in guerrilla warfare and attacked police stations, interpreted the call for Swaraj through their own experiences and aspirations. While they chanted Gandhiji's name and demanded 'Swatantra Bharat' (Independent India), their actions were a blend of their local struggles and an emotional connection to the broader national agitation. Their link to Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress helped them identify with a movement that extended beyond their immediate surroundings.

Remember

The understanding of Swaraj varied among different groups. While the Congress envisioned a national political awakening, groups like plantation workers and tribals interpreted it in terms of their immediate needs and grievances.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might present a narrative about plantation workers' aspirations and their actions during the Non-Cooperation Movement. You would need to explain how their vision of Swaraj differed from the Congress's, while still acknowledging their connection to the national struggle.

Towards Civil Disobedience

In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement. He cited the increasing violence in many places and the need for proper training of satyagrahis for mass struggles.

This decision led to internal debate within the Congress. Some leaders, like C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru, felt that engaging in elections to the provincial councils, set up by the Government of India Act of 1919, was a better strategy. They formed the Swaraj Party to advocate for opposing British policies from within the councils and arguing for reforms.

Conversely, younger leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pushed for more radical mass agitation and full independence.

Two key factors shaped Indian politics in the late 1920s:

1. Worldwide Economic Depression: Starting around 1926 and intensifying after 1930, falling agricultural prices and declining exports made it difficult for peasants to sell their produce and pay revenue. This led to widespread turmoil in the countryside by 1930.
2. The Simon Commission: In response to the nationalist movement, the British government formed a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon in 1928 to review the constitutional system in India. The commission faced widespread opposition because it had no Indian members. Protests erupted across India with slogans like ‘Go back Simon’.

In an attempt to appease nationalist sentiments, Viceroy Lord Irwin announced in October 1929 a vague offer of 'dominion status' for India and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution. This offer did not satisfy the Congress leaders.

This period saw the radicals within the Congress gaining assertiveness, while the influence of liberals and moderates advocating for constitutional reform within British dominion waned.

In December 1929, the Lahore Congress, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, formally demanded 'Purna Swaraj' (full independence). 26 January 1930 was declared Independence Day, with people urged to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. However, these celebrations had limited impact. Mahatma Gandhi recognized the need to connect this abstract ideal of freedom with concrete issues of everyday life to mobilize the masses effectively.

Remember

The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement and the subsequent internal debates within the Congress set the stage for the next phase of the national movement. The economic depression and the Simon Commission's arrival further fuelled nationalist sentiment.

Exam-smart

You might be given a source discussing the formation of the Swaraj Party or the opposition to the Simon Commission. You would need to analyze the motivations of leaders like C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru, or explain the reasons behind the widespread protest against the Simon Commission.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement was a significant phase in India's struggle for independence, led by Mahatma Gandhi. It differed from the Non-Cooperation Movement by not only asking people to refuse cooperation with the British but also to actively break colonial laws.

The Power of Salt: A Unifying Symbol

Mahatma Gandhi identified salt as a potent symbol that could unite diverse sections of Indian society. This was because salt was a necessity for everyone, rich or poor, and its tax and the British monopoly over its production represented the oppressive nature of British rule.

• Demands to Viceroy Irwin: In January 1930, Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin detailing eleven demands. These ranged from general concerns to specific issues affecting different social classes, aiming to garner broad support.
• Abolition of Salt Tax: The most crucial demand was the abolition of the salt tax. Gandhi argued that this tax, along with the government's monopoly on salt production, highlighted the exploitative face of British governance.
• Ultimatum: Gandhi's letter served as an ultimatum: if the demands were not met by March 11, the Indian National Congress would launch a Civil Disobedience Movement.

The Salt March (Dandi March)

When Viceroy Irwin refused to negotiate, Gandhi initiated his famous Salt March.

• Departure: Gandhi, along with 78 trusted volunteers, began the march from his ashram in Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi in Gujarat.
• Journey: The march covered over 240 miles, taking 24 days with an average of 10 miles per day.
• Mobilization: Wherever Gandhi stopped, thousands gathered to listen to him. He explained the meaning of swaraj and urged peaceful defiance of British laws.
• Beginning of the Movement: On April 6, Gandhi reached Dandi and symbolically broke the law by manufacturing salt by boiling seawater. This act marked the commencement of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Spread and Nature of the Civil Disobedience Movement

Following Gandhi's action, people across the country began to violate salt laws, manufacture salt, and protest at government salt factories. The movement encompassed various forms of defiance:

• Boycott of Foreign Goods: Foreign cloth was boycotted.
• Picketting: Liquor shops were picketed.
• Refusal to Pay Taxes: Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
• Resignation of Officials: Village officials resigned from their posts.
• Defiance of Forest Laws: In many areas, people violated forest laws, entering reserved forests to gather wood and graze cattle.

Government Repression and its Consequences

The colonial government responded with a policy of brutal repression to quell the movement.

• Arrests: Congress leaders were arrested one by one.
• Violent Clashes: The arrests led to violent confrontations. In Peshawar, when Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested in April 1930, protestors faced police firing and armed vehicles, resulting in many deaths.
• Industrial Worker Actions: In May 1930, when Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked government symbols like police stations, municipal buildings, law courts, and railway stations.
• Mass Arrests: The government arrested approximately 100,000 people, and peaceful protestors, including women and children, were subjected to violence.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Relaunch of the Movement

Faced with severe repression, Gandhi decided to call off the movement and negotiated with Viceroy Irwin.

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): This pact was an agreement where Gandhi consented to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London. In return, the government agreed to release political prisoners.
• Breakdown of Negotiations: Gandhi attended the conference in London in December 1931, but the negotiations failed, and he returned disappointed.
• Renewed Repression: Upon his return, Gandhi found that the government had intensified its repressive measures. Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were imprisoned, the Congress was declared illegal, and strict measures were imposed to prevent public gatherings and boycotts.
• Relaunch: With grave concerns, Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Decline: The movement continued for over a year but lost its momentum by 1934.

Remember

The Civil Disobedience Movement was unique because it involved actively breaking specific unjust laws, not just withdrawing cooperation. Salt was chosen as a symbol because its consumption was universal, making the tax universally felt.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might present an excerpt from Gandhi's letter to Irwin or the Independence Day Pledge of 1930. You would need to identify the demands made, the significance of salt, and how these elements were intended to mobilize a wide range of people for the Civil Disobedience Movement. Case studies could focus on specific instances of defiance like the Salt March itself, or the repression faced by protestors in places like Peshawar or Sholapur, asking you to explain the role of civil disobedience in those events.

How Participants saw the Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement, and the broader struggle for swaraj, involved diverse social groups, each with their own motivations and understanding of what swaraj meant. Examining these varied perspectives reveals the complex social dynamics at play during India's freedom struggle.

Rich Peasant Communities

• Who they were: Groups like the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh.
• Why they participated: They were primarily producers of commercial crops. The trade depression and falling prices severely impacted their cash income. This made it impossible for them to pay government revenue demands, which the government refused to reduce.
• What Swaraj meant to them: For these communities, the struggle for swaraj was a direct fight against high revenues. They actively organized their communities and pushed reluctant members to join boycott programs.
• Disappointment: They felt deeply let down when the movement was called off in 1931 without any revision of revenue rates. This led many to refuse participation when the movement restarted in 1932.

Poorer Peasantry

• Who they were: Small tenants who rented land from landlords.
• Their demands: Beyond just lower revenue, they desired the remission of unpaid rent to landlords, as their falling cash incomes made paying rent difficult.
• Association with radical movements: Many joined various radical movements, often influenced by Socialists and Communists.
• Uncertain relationship with Congress: The Congress was hesitant to support 'no rent' campaigns for fear of alienating rich peasants and landlords, leading to an uncertain relationship between the poorer peasantry and the Congress.

Revolutionaries and Youth

• Beliefs: Some nationalists believed that the struggle against the British could not be won solely through non-violence.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA): Founded in 1928, with leaders like Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh.
• Actions: They carried out dramatic actions targeting symbols of British power, such as throwing a bomb in the Legislative Assembly (1929) and an attempt to bomb Lord Irwin's train.
• Bhagat Singh's Vision: Bhagat Singh, executed at 23, articulated a desire for societal revolution, stating, "Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is the imprescriptible birthright of all. The labourer is the real sustainer of society… To the altar of this revolution we have brought our youth as incense, for no sacrifice is too great for so magnificent a cause. We are content. We await the advent of revolution. Inquilab Zindabad!"

Business Classes

• Post WWI gains: Indian merchants and industrialists had profited significantly during WWI and gained power.
• Motivations: They sought to expand their businesses by opposing colonial policies that restricted them. They desired protection against imports of foreign goods and a favourable rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio.
• Organisations: Formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) (1927). Key leaders included Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla.
• Support for the Movement: They initially supported the Civil Disobedience Movement by providing financial aid and boycotting imported goods.
• Meaning of Swaraj: They viewed swaraj as a state free from colonial restrictions, allowing trade and industry to flourish.
• Shifting Enthusiasm: Their support waned after the failure of the Round Table Conference. They became apprehensive of militant activities, prolonged business disruption, and the rising influence of socialism within the Congress.

Industrial Working Classes

• Limited Participation: Generally did not participate in large numbers, except in regions like Nagpur.
• Reason for aloofness: As industrialists grew closer to the Congress, workers tended to stay away.
• Selective adoption of ideas: Some workers participated by adopting elements of the Gandhian program, like boycotting foreign goods, as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions. Examples include strikes by railway workers (1930) and dockworkers (1932), and the participation of tin mine workers in Chotanagpur (1930).
• Congress reluctance: The Congress was reluctant to include workers' demands to avoid alienating industrialists and dividing anti-imperial forces.

Women

• Large-scale participation: Women participated in significant numbers.
• Activities: They attended Gandhiji's speeches, joined protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many were imprisoned.
• Background: In urban areas, they often came from high-caste families; in rural areas, they were from rich peasant households.
• Motivation: Moved by Gandhiji's call, they saw service to the nation as a sacred duty.
• Limited radical change: Despite their increased public role, this did not necessarily lead to a radical change in their position. Gandhiji believed their primary duty was to the home, and the Congress was reluctant to give them positions of authority, preferring symbolic presence.

Remember

The perception of swaraj varied significantly among different groups. While some sought economic relief and freedom from oppressive policies, others aimed for broader social and political revolution.

Exam-smart

A case study question might present a scenario about a rich peasant or a factory worker in the 1930s and ask about their likely motivations for joining or not joining the Civil Disobedience Movement, or what "swaraj" might have meant to them. You would need to recall the specific interests and grievances of each group.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

The Civil Disobedience Movement, while broad in its appeal, did not engage all social groups equally. The abstract concept of swaraj (self-rule) did not resonate with everyone, and participation varied based on the specific concerns and aspirations of different communities.

Dalits and their Limited Participation

A significant social group that had limited participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement were the Dalits, who began to refer to themselves as oppressed or dalit from the 1930s.

• Congress's Stance: For a long time, the Congress had been reluctant to address the issue of untouchability, fearing alienation of the sanatanis (conservative high-caste Hindus).
• Gandhi's Intervention: Mahatma Gandhi, however, saw the elimination of untouchability as crucial for achieving swaraj, declaring that it would take a hundred years without it. He termed the Dalits as Harijans (children of God) and actively worked for their upliftment.
• He organised satyagraha to secure their entry into temples and access to public amenities like wells, tanks, roads, and schools.
• He personally engaged in cleaning toilets to dignify the work of bhangis (sweepers) and urged upper castes to abandon the "sin of untouchability."
• Dalit Aspirations: Despite Gandhi's efforts, many Dalit leaders sought a distinct political solution for their community. They began organizing to demand:
• Reserved seats in educational institutions.
• A separate electorate to choose their own representatives in legislative councils.
• They believed that political empowerment was key to resolving their social disabilities.
• Impact on Movement: Consequently, Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was restricted, particularly in regions like Maharashtra and Nagpur where their organizations were strong.
• The Poona Pact (1932):
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who formed the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for Dalits.
• When the British government agreed to Ambedkar's demand, Gandhi began a fast unto death, believing separate electorates would hinder Dalit integration into society.
• Ambedkar eventually conceded to Gandhi's view, leading to the Poona Pact. This pact granted the Depressed Classes (later Scheduled Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but their election would be by the general electorate.
• Despite this, the Dalit movement remained wary of the Congress-led national movement.

Muslim Participation and Alienation

Several Muslim political organisations were also hesitant to fully support the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Post-Non-Cooperation Decline: Following the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, a significant segment of the Muslim population felt alienated from the Congress.
• Association with Hindu Nationalism: From the mid-1920s, the Congress became increasingly associated with overtly Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
• Communal Tensions: Worsening Hindu-Muslim relations led to religious processions marked by militant fervor, triggering communal clashes and riots in various cities. Each incident widened the rift between the communities.
• Failed Unity Efforts: While the Congress and the Muslim League attempted to forge an alliance, disagreements persisted, especially regarding representation in future assemblies.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League was willing to forgo separate electorates if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and proportional representation in Muslim-majority provinces.
• These negotiations collapsed in 1928 at the All Parties Conference when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha opposed compromise.
• Atmosphere of Distrust: The atmosphere of suspicion and distrust meant that many Muslims could not join the call for a united struggle.
• Minority Concerns: Muslim leaders and intellectuals worried about the status of Muslims as a minority, fearing their culture and identity would be subsumed by a Hindu majority.
• Iqbal's Statement (1930): Sir Muhammad Iqbal, as president of the Muslim League, emphasized the importance of separate electorates for Muslims as a safeguard for their minority political interests. His statement is seen as an intellectual precursor to the demand for Pakistan. He argued that if the principle of free development for Muslims on their own lines was recognized, they would support India's freedom. He stated: "The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India within India is, therefore, perfectly justified… The Hindu thinks that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit of true nationalism, because he understands the word “nation” to mean a kind of universal amalgamation in which no communal entity ought to retain its private individuality. Such a state of things, however, does not exist. India is a land of racial and religious variety."

The Sense of Collective Belonging

The development of nationalism is fundamentally linked to people believing they are part of the same nation. This sense of collective belonging was fostered through various experiences and cultural processes.

• United Struggles: Experiencing united struggles, like the Civil Disobedience Movement itself, helped forge a sense of shared identity.
• Cultural Processes: Nationalism also captured people's imagination through:
• History and fiction: Reinterpreting India's past to highlight its achievements.
• Folklore and songs: Reviving and celebrating traditional culture.
• Popular prints and symbols: Creating visual representations of the nation.

The Image of Bharat Mata

• In the twentieth century, the image of Bharat Mata became a powerful symbol of India.
• Initially created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in the 1870s with the hymn "Vande Mataram" (included in his novel Anandamath), it gained popularity during the Swadeshi movement.
• Abanindranath Tagore painted a famous image of Bharat Mata as a serene, divine ascetic figure.
• Later, various popular prints and artists depicted Bharat Mata in different forms, with devotion to her seen as an act of nationalism.
• The image often symbolized dispensing learning, food, and clothing, or was portrayed with symbols of power, reflecting different aspects of the motherland.

Revival of Folklore

• In the late nineteenth century, nationalists began collecting and recording folk tales, songs, and legends.
• They believed these represented India's authentic traditional culture, damaged by foreign influence.
• Preserving this folk tradition was seen as essential for restoring national identity and pride.
• Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal and Natesa Sastri in Madras (with his four-volume collection, The Folklore of Southern India) were key figures in this movement, viewing folklore as "national literature" and a manifestation of people's thoughts and characteristics.

Icons and Symbols

• As the national movement grew, leaders recognized the power of icons and symbols in unifying people.
• During the Swadeshi movement, a tricolour flag (red, green, yellow) with eight lotuses and a crescent moon was designed.
• By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag, a tricolour (red, green, white) featuring a spinning wheel, symbolizing self-help.
• Carrying and displaying these flags became acts of defiance.

Reinterpretation of History

• Nationalists reinterpreted Indian history to instill national pride, countering the British narrative of Indian backwardness.
• They highlighted India's glorious past in ancient times, marked by achievements in art, science, mathematics, culture, and trade.
• This golden age was contrasted with a period of decline under colonization.
• These nationalist histories aimed to inspire pride in India's past and motivate struggle against British rule.

Challenges in Unification: However, these efforts sometimes alienated other communities if the glorified past was predominantly Hindu or if symbols were drawn from Hindu iconography.

Remember

The Civil Disobedience Movement's success was hampered by the differing aspirations of various social groups. While some sought political representation, others focused on social reform or felt alienated by perceived Hindu bias in nationalist symbols.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might present Iqbal's statement and ask you to analyze the Muslim League's perspective on nationalism and separate electorates, or to compare it with the Congress's idea of a unified nation. You would need to explain the fears of minority communities and the rationale behind demands for separate representation.