Political Parties — Notes

Why Do We Need Political Parties?

Political parties are central to the functioning of modern democracies. While often criticized, they perform crucial functions that are essential for a representative government to operate effectively. Without them, democracies would struggle to manage diverse opinions, form stable governments, and hold leaders accountable.

Meaning of Political Parties

A political party is defined as a group of individuals who come together with the common goal of contesting elections and obtaining political power to govern. They share a common understanding on certain policies and programmes aimed at promoting the collective good of society.

Parties represent different viewpoints and interests within a society. They aim to persuade citizens that their proposed policies are superior to those of other parties and seek to win public support through elections to implement these policies. This inherent nature of representing specific interests means that parties often reflect and, at times, exacerbate societal divisions. The term partisan describes someone strongly committed to a particular party or group, often to the extent of being unable to view issues impartially.

A political party typically comprises three key elements:

• The Leaders: These are the prominent figures who shape the party's vision and strategy.
• The Active Members: These individuals dedicate their time and effort to party activities.
• The Followers: These are the people who support the party and its candidates, often by voting.

Functions of Political Parties

Political parties perform a wide array of functions that are vital for a functioning democracy:

• Contest Elections: The primary function of parties is to put forward candidates to contest elections. In most democracies, elections are primarily fought between candidates nominated by different political parties. The method of candidate selection can vary; some countries allow members and supporters to choose candidates (like in the USA), while in others, top party leaders make these decisions (as often seen in India).
• Put Forward Policies and Programmes: Parties present different sets of policies and programmes to the electorate. Voters then choose from these options. In a complex society with diverse opinions, parties group similar views together to provide a clear direction for government policy. The ruling party's agenda forms the basis for government policies.
• Play a Decisive Role in Making Laws: Although laws are formally debated and passed in the legislature, most members belong to parties. Consequently, they tend to follow the direction of their party leadership, even if it contradicts their personal views.
• Form and Run Governments: Political parties are responsible for forming and operating governments. Major policy decisions are typically made by the executive, which is drawn from the political parties. Parties recruit, train, and appoint leaders as ministers to govern according to their vision.
• Act as Opposition: Parties that lose elections play a crucial role as the opposition. They voice alternative perspectives, scrutinize government actions, and criticize failures or flawed policies. Opposition parties also work to mobilize public dissent against the government.
• Shape Public Opinion: Parties actively engage in raising awareness about issues and highlighting them. With a large network of members and activists across the country, they influence public discourse. Many pressure groups are essentially extensions of political parties within different societal segments. Parties also sometimes initiate movements to address public grievances. Public opinion often crystallizes along the lines adopted by political parties.
• Provide Access to Government and Welfare Schemes: Political parties serve as a conduit for citizens to access government machinery and welfare programmes. Local party leaders are often more accessible to ordinary citizens than government officials, fostering a sense of connection. Parties must remain responsive to public needs and demands, as failure to do so can result in electoral defeat.

Necessity of Political Parties

Political parties are considered a necessary condition for a democracy because they perform the essential functions listed above. To understand their necessity, consider a scenario without parties:

• Independent Candidates: If all candidates were independent, no single candidate or group could make significant promises for policy changes.
• Uncertain Governments: While a government might form, its stability and effectiveness would be uncertain.
• Lack of Accountability: Elected representatives might be accountable to their local constituencies but not for the overall direction and governance of the country.

Even in local elections where parties don't formally contest (like some panchayat elections), villages often split into factions, each fielding a panel of candidates, demonstrating how parties naturally emerge to organize political competition. This explains why political parties are found in virtually all countries, regardless of their size, age, or development status. The emergence of political parties is intrinsically linked to the development of representative democracies. As societies grew larger and more complex, they required organized groups to aggregate diverse views, present them to the government, bring representatives together, and form a responsible government. Parties provide the necessary mechanisms to support or challenge the government, formulate policies, and articulate support or opposition.

Remember

Political parties are not just about winning elections; they are fundamental to how representative democracies function by organizing political competition, aggregating interests, and providing a platform for governance and accountability.

Exam-smart

In case studies about elections or governance, you might be given information about public opinion, election manifestos, or legislative debates. You'll need to connect these to the functions of political parties, such as shaping public opinion, presenting policies, or law-making, to explain why a particular outcome occurred or why a party acted in a certain way.

How Many Parties Should We Have?

The number of political parties a country has is a crucial aspect of its democratic structure. While in a formal sense, any group can form a political party, the effectiveness and influence of these parties in governing a nation vary significantly. The question of "how many parties are good for a democracy?" leads us to examine different party systems.

One-Party System

A one-party system is a form of government where only one political party is legally allowed to hold power. While other parties might exist on paper, the electoral system and legal framework prevent them from competing effectively.

• Example: China.
• Why it's not democratic: It fundamentally restricts political choice and competition, which are essential tenets of democracy. Citizens are denied a fair chance to elect alternative representatives or policies.

Two-Party System

In a two-party system, power typically alternates between two major political parties. While other smaller parties may exist and even win some seats, they rarely have a realistic chance of forming the government on their own.

• Examples: The United States of America, The United Kingdom.
• How it works: The two dominant parties vie for majority support, and the government is usually formed by the party that wins a majority of seats.
• Implication: It can lead to more stable governments as one party typically holds a clear majority, but it might also limit the representation of diverse viewpoints.

Multiparty System

A multiparty system is characterized by several political parties competing for power, with at least two or more parties having a reasonable chance of forming a government, either independently or through alliances.

• Example: India.
• How it works: Governments are often formed by coalitions, where different parties join together to achieve a majority. When parties unite to contest elections and gain power, this is called an alliance or a front.
• Pros: It allows for a wider representation of different interests and opinions within society.
• Cons: It can appear messy and may lead to political instability due to frequent negotiations and potential collapses of coalitions.
• Evolution: Party systems evolve over time, influenced by a country's social divisions, history, and electoral system. India's vast diversity has contributed to its multiparty system.

Remember

No single party system is universally ideal for all countries or situations. The nature of a society significantly influences its party system.

Exam-smart

Case studies might present scenarios of coalition governments or electoral outcomes and ask you to identify the type of party system based on the number of viable contenders and the formation of government.

Popular Political Participation

There is a common perception that political parties are unpopular and citizens are indifferent to them. However, evidence from South Asia, including India, suggests a more nuanced reality:

• Trust Levels: While trust in political parties is generally low globally and in South Asia, with more people expressing 'not much' or 'not at all' trust, this doesn't necessarily translate to a lack of participation.
• Participation Levels: Despite low trust, participation in party activities can be relatively high. In India, the proportion of people who are members of political parties has been increasing over the last three decades.
• Closeness to Parties: Similarly, the sense of feeling 'close to a political party' has also seen an increase in India during this period.

Remember

Low trust in institutions does not always equate to disengagement from political processes. People may still participate through membership or by feeling affiliated with a party.

Exam-smart

Data from surveys on public trust and political participation might be presented. You may need to interpret this data to draw conclusions about citizens' engagement with political parties.

National Parties

In federal systems like India, political parties can be broadly categorized based on their presence across different federal units. National parties are those with units in various states that largely follow the same policies and strategies decided at the national level.

• Recognition: Political parties must register with the Election Commission of India. The Commission grants 'recognised' status to parties that meet specific criteria, offering them special facilities like a unique election symbol.

• Criteria for Recognition:

• State Party: Secures at least 6% of total votes in a State Legislative Assembly election AND wins at least two seats.

• National Party: Secures at least 6% of total votes in Lok Sabha or State Assembly elections in four states AND wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha.

• Significance: Recognised parties have a distinct advantage in elections, aiding voter identification and recall. India had six recognised national parties as per the Election Commission's 2023 notification.

• Examples of National Parties and their brief characteristics:

Remember

A party needs to meet specific vote share and seat victory thresholds in both state and national elections to be recognized as a national party.

Exam-smart

You might be given a description of a party's ideology, its electoral performance in different states, or its core focus, and asked to identify whether it qualifies as a national or state party, or to infer its likely political stance.

State Parties

State parties, also known as regional parties, are political parties that have a significant presence and influence within one or a few specific states rather than across the entire country. While their name suggests a regional focus, their ideology or outlook is not always limited to a particular region. Some parties labelled as 'State parties' may have a national organisational structure with units in various states, like the Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal. Others, such as the Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim Democratic Front, Mizo National Front, and Telangana Rashtra Samithi, are strongly conscious of their state identity.

Over the past three decades, the number and strength of state parties have grown considerably. This expansion has led to a more diverse Parliament in India. Consequently, no single national party has been able to secure a majority in the Lok Sabha on its own until 2014. This situation often compels national parties to form alliances with state parties to form a coalition government. Since 1996, most state parties have had opportunities to be part of national-level coalition governments. This trend has significantly contributed to strengthening federalism and democracy in India by giving regional voices more prominence in national politics.

Challenges to Political Parties

Political parties, despite being crucial for democracy, face several significant challenges that can hinder their effective functioning. These challenges are often the focus of public dissatisfaction and criticism.

• Lack of Internal Democracy: A common global tendency is the concentration of power within a few top leaders. Many parties fail to maintain membership registers, hold regular organisational meetings, or conduct internal elections. Ordinary members often lack sufficient information and the means to influence party decisions, leading to leaders wielding excessive power. This can result in personal loyalty to the leader becoming more important than loyalty to party principles.

• Dynastic Succession: This challenge is closely linked to the lack of internal democracy. When parties lack transparent procedures, it becomes difficult for ordinary workers to rise to leadership positions. Leaders often favour people close to them or their family members, giving them an unfair advantage. This can lead to individuals with inadequate experience or popular support occupying positions of power, which is detrimental to democracy.

• Growing Role of Money and Muscle Power: Parties focused solely on winning elections may resort to shortcuts, such as nominating candidates who can raise substantial funds or have financial backing. This reliance on money power can give wealthy individuals and companies undue influence on party policies and decisions. In some cases, muscle power (involvement of criminals) is also used to win elections. This increasing influence of money and criminals is a global concern for democratic politics.

• Lack of Meaningful Choice for Voters: For voters to have a meaningful choice, political parties must offer distinct ideological positions. However, in many parts of the world, including India, ideological differences between major parties have narrowed. This reduces the options available to voters who desire fundamentally different policies. The constant shifting of leaders between parties further blurs these distinctions.

Remember

The challenges faced by political parties are interconnected. For instance, lack of internal democracy can pave the way for dynastic succession and make it easier for money and muscle power to influence party affairs.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might present a scenario describing a party's internal workings or election practices and ask students to identify which challenges are being illustrated (e.g., a party leader always appointing family members, a candidate winning elections primarily due to vast personal wealth).

How Can Parties Be Reformed?

Reforming political parties to overcome these challenges is a complex issue, as parties themselves hold the ultimate power to implement changes. Citizens and various institutions have proposed several reforms, and some efforts have been made:

• Legislation against Defection: An amendment to the Constitution aims to prevent elected representatives (MLAs and MPs) from changing parties after being elected. If an elected member defects, they lose their legislative seat. This has reduced defection but can also limit dissent within a party, forcing members to adhere strictly to the party leadership's decisions.

• Supreme Court Orders on Money and Criminals: The Supreme Court mandates that all candidates must file an affidavit detailing their assets and any pending criminal cases. This increases public access to information. However, the effectiveness of this measure in curbing the influence of the rich and criminals is yet to be fully determined, as there is no system to verify the accuracy of the submitted information.

• Election Commission Regulations: The Election Commission requires political parties to conduct organisational elections and file income tax returns. While parties comply, these actions can sometimes be merely procedural, and their impact on improving internal democracy is not always clear.

• Suggestions for Further Reform:

• Law to Regulate Internal Affairs: A law could be made to mandate parties to maintain membership registers, follow their constitutions, establish independent authorities for dispute resolution, and hold open elections for top positions.

• Mandatory Quota for Women: Parties could be required to give a minimum percentage (e.g., one-third) of tickets to women candidates and reserve quotas for women in decision-making bodies.

• State Funding of Elections: The government could provide financial support to parties for election expenses, either in kind (e.g., petrol, paper) or in cash, based on their past electoral performance.

Over-regulation can be counterproductive, potentially leading parties to find ways to circumvent laws. Ultimately, significant reforms are unlikely without the willingness of the political parties themselves.

• Public Pressure: Citizens, pressure groups, movements, and the media can exert pressure on parties through petitions, publicity, and agitations. If parties fear losing public support due to inaction, they may be more inclined towards reform.

• Public Participation: Individuals who desire reform can join political parties and work for change from within. The quality of democracy is directly linked to public participation. As the text states, "The problem of bad politics can be solved by more and better politics."

Remember

Legal solutions can help, but they are not a panacea. Genuine reform requires both institutional changes and active participation from citizens.

Exam-smart

A question might ask students to propose reforms for a hypothetical political party facing issues like internal power struggles or excessive campaign spending, requiring them to draw upon the suggested reforms discussed. It could also present a scenario where a party leader faces pressure to provide more opportunities to women members and ask students to suggest specific actions based on the reforms discussed.