Nationalism in India — Important Questions

Answers

• In Champaran (1917), he inspired peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
• In Kheda (1918), he supported peasants affected by crop failure and plague, demanding revenue relaxation.
• In Ahmedabad (1918), he organized a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers.
  3. The Rowlatt Act (1919) was hastily passed by the Imperial Legislative Council, giving the government immense powers to suppress political activities and detain prisoners without trial for two years. Indians were outraged because it severely curtailed civil liberties and was passed despite united opposition from Indian members. This led to nationwide hartals, strikes, and demonstrations. The infamous Jallianwala Bagh incident occurred on 13 April 1919, when General Dyer opened fire on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds. This brutal repression further intensified the nationalist anger and resolve against British rule.
  4. Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as a crucial opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims. The defeat of the Ottoman Turkey in World War I and the potential imposition of a harsh treaty on the Khalifa (spiritual head of Islam) concerned Muslims globally. A Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. Gandhiji discussed with Muslim leaders Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali the possibility of a united mass action. He believed that by taking up the Khilafat issue, he could bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement, thus broadening its base.
  5. Mahatma Gandhi proposed that the Non-Cooperation Movement should unfold in stages:
• Surrender of titles awarded by the government.
• Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
• If the government resorted to repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
  The movement slowed down in cities due to several reasons: Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mill cloth, making it unaffordable for the poor. The boycott of British institutions created a problem as alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop, leading students and lawyers to return to government institutions.
  6. In the countryside, the Non-Cooperation Movement integrated peasant and tribal struggles.
• In Awadh, peasants led by Baba Ramchandra struggled against high rents and cesses demanded by talukdars and landlords, and against forced labour (begar). The Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed, demanding revenue reduction and abolition of begar.
• In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, tribal peasants revolted against the colonial government closing forest areas and denying traditional rights. Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju, they attacked police stations and carried on guerrilla warfare, interpreting Swaraj in their own way.
  7. Various social groups participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement with their own specific aspirations under the umbrella call of Swaraj, which meant different things to them:
• Peasants: In Awadh, they demanded reduction of revenue and abolition of begar, struggling against landlords. They invoked Gandhiji's name to sanction their actions.
• Tribals: In Gudem Hills, they sought to regain forest rights and revolted against forced labour for road building, led by Alluri Sitaram Raju.
• Plantation Workers: In Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely and retain links with their villages. They defied authorities and headed home, believing 'Gandhi Raj' would give them land. However, they were brutally beaten by the police.
  8. Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 because he felt the movement was turning violent in many places (like Chauri Chaura) and that satyagrahis needed better training for mass struggles. Within the Congress, some leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru favoured returning to council politics and participating in elections, forming the Swaraj Party. However, younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more radical mass agitation and full independence.
  9. The Simon Commission was set up by the British government in 1928 to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. However, it was boycotted by Indians as it had no Indian members. The nationalist response was a nationwide slogan of 'Go back Simon'. In response to this agitation, Lord Irwin announced a vague offer of 'dominion status' and a Round Table Conference. However, this did not satisfy the Congress. Led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, the radicals within the Congress became more assertive, and at the Lahore Congress in December 1929, the demand for 'Purna Swaraj' (Complete Independence) was formalised.
  10. The Salt March, initiated by Mahatma Gandhi on March 12, 1930, involved walking 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi. Salt was chosen as a powerful symbol because it was consumed by both the rich and the poor, and the tax on it and government monopoly highlighted the oppressive face of British rule. Upon reaching Dandi on April 6, Gandhiji ceremonially violated the salt law by manufacturing salt, marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. This movement asked people not only to refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws. It saw widespread salt law violations, boycott of foreign cloth, picketing of liquor shops, and refusal to pay taxes.
  11. In the countryside, rich peasant communities like the Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh, hard hit by falling prices, participated enthusiastically in the Civil Disobedience Movement. They saw the fight for Swaraj as a struggle against high revenues and organised their communities to boycott British goods. However, they were disappointed when the movement was called off without revenue rates being revised, leading many to refuse participation when it restarted. The poorer peasantry, struggling to pay rent, joined more radical movements and were apprehensive of the Congress's reluctance to support 'no rent' campaigns, which might upset rich peasants and landlords.
  12. During the Civil Disobedience Movement:
• Business Classes: Having profited from WWI, they sought to expand their businesses and opposed colonial policies restricting them. They supported the movement initially, providing financial assistance and boycotting imported goods, seeing Swaraj as a time free from colonial business constraints. However, they later became apprehensive of militant activities and the rise of socialism.
• Industrial Working Classes: Their participation was limited, except in Nagpur. They selectively adopted Gandhian ideas like boycotting foreign goods as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions, with strikes occurring in 1930 and 1932. The Congress was reluctant to include their demands to avoid alienating industrialists.
  13. Women played a significant role in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Thousands participated in Gandhiji's salt march, listened to him, and joined protest marches. They manufactured salt, picketed shops, and many courted arrest. In urban areas, they were mostly from high-caste families, while in rural areas, they came from rich peasant households. Moved by Gandhiji's call, they saw service to the nation as a sacred duty. However, this did not necessarily lead to radical changes in their societal position, as Gandhiji still emphasized their roles as homemakers and mothers.
  14. The Civil Disobedience Movement faced limitations with certain groups:
• Dalits: From the 1930s, they began calling themselves Dalits. Mahatma Gandhi tried to eliminate untouchability, calling them 'harijans' and organizing satyagrahas for their rights. However, many Dalit leaders sought political solutions like separate electorates. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar clashed with Gandhi at the Round Table Conference demanding separate electorates. The Poona Pact (1932) granted reserved seats but not separate electorates, leaving Dalits apprehensive of the Congress-led movement.
• Muslims: After the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, many Muslims felt alienated from the Congress, especially as it became more associated with Hindu religious nationalist groups. This led to communal clashes. While efforts were made for an alliance, issues over representation in future assemblies, particularly regarding separate electorates, remained a point of contention, and many Muslims did not respond to the call for a united struggle.
  15. Nationalism captured people's imagination through various cultural processes:
• Icons and Symbols: The image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and painted by Abanindranath Tagore, became a symbol of the motherland. Devotion to this figure was seen as nationalism. The Swaraj flag, designed by Gandhiji with a spinning wheel, also symbolized self-help and became a mark of defiance.
• Folklore and Songs: Nationalists recorded folk tales and songs to revive traditional Indian culture, which they believed was damaged by foreign rule. This helped in discovering national identity and restoring pride in the past. Rabindranath Tagore and Natesa Sastri were key figures in this revival.
• Reinterpretation of History: Indians began writing nationalist histories highlighting India's glorious past achievements in ancient times (art, science, culture) and contrasting it with the decline under colonial rule, urging pride and struggle for freedom.
  16. The image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in his novel Anandamath and later painted by Abanindranath Tagore, portrayed her as an ascetic, divine, and spiritual figure. This motherly image helped create a visual identity with which people could associate the nation. Devotion to this mother figure, along with the singing of 'Vande Mataram', became a symbol of nationalism and fostered a sense of collective belonging, unifying people under the idea of a shared motherland.
  17. Rabindranath Tagore collected ballads, nursery rhymes, and myths in Bengal, leading a movement for folk revival. He believed preserving folk traditions was essential for discovering national identity and restoring pride. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, 'The Folklore of Southern India', considering folklore as the "most trustworthy manifestation of people's real thoughts and characteristics." These efforts helped connect people to their traditional culture and fostered a sense of national pride.
  18. The Swaraj flag, designed by Mahatma Gandhi, was a tricolour (red, green, and white) with a spinning wheel in the centre. The spinning wheel represented the Gandhian ideal of self-help and self-reliance. Carrying this flag aloft during marches became a powerful symbol of defiance against British rule and fostered a sense of unity and collective identity among participants, contributing significantly to the feeling of nationalism.
  19. Nationalist historians aimed to instill pride in India's past by highlighting its glorious achievements in ancient times in fields like art, architecture, science, mathematics, religion, culture, law, and philosophy. They contrasted this with the perceived decline under colonial rule. This narrative urged readers to take pride in their heritage and struggle to change the 'miserable conditions of life' under British rule, thus fueling the desire for self-governance and independence.
  20. The Civil Disobedience Movement, while broad-based, faced limitations. The rich peasants, who were enthusiastic supporters initially, withdrew when their demand for revenue reduction was not met by the call-off in 1931. The poorer peasantry's radical demands, like rent remission, were often not supported by the Congress due to fear of alienating landlords. Dalit participation was limited due to their pursuit of separate political solutions, particularly separate electorates, which Gandhi opposed. Similarly, many Muslims felt alienated from the Congress due to communal tensions and perceived favouritism towards Hindu nationalism, limiting their engagement in a united struggle.