The Rise of Nationalism in Europe — Notes

Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision of the World

Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of prints in 1848 titled "The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations." These prints envisioned a world where people were united as distinct nations, identified by their flags and national costumes.

• Key Elements in Sorrieu's Vision:
• Statue of Liberty: A symbol of freedom and enlightenment, leading the procession.
• Leading Nations: The United States and Switzerland are depicted as already being nation-states.
• France: Identified by its revolutionary tricolour flag, it is shown following the Statue of Liberty.
• Germany: Represented by the black, red, and gold flag, symbolizing liberal hopes for unification in 1848, though not yet a nation.
• Other Nations: Peoples from Austria, Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia follow.
• Divine Symbolism: Christ, saints, and angels from above represent fraternity among the nations.

This vision was utopian, meaning it depicted an ideal society that was unlikely to exist in reality. It projected a future of democratic and social republics, united in a pact of brotherhood.

Remember

Sorrieu's prints are a visual representation of the ideals of nationalism and international brotherhood that were circulating in 1848, even if the political reality was far from this dream.

Exam-smart

You might be shown Sorrieu's print and asked to identify symbols of nationalism, or to explain the utopian nature of the vision and its connection to the political events of 1848.

What is a Nation?

The concept of a nation is central to understanding nationalism. It is not simply about shared language, race, religion, or territory.

• Ernst Renan's Definition (1882):

• A nation is a culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice, and devotion.

• It is built on a heroic past, great men, and glory – a shared "social capital."

• Essential conditions include having common glories in the past, a common will in the present, having performed great deeds together, and the desire to perform more.

• A nation is a large-scale solidarity, whose existence is a daily plebiscite (a direct vote by the inhabitants).

• The inhabitants are the nation, and their right to self-determination is paramount.

• Why Nations are Important (According to Renan):

• The existence of nations is a good thing and a necessity.

• They are a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if only one law and one master existed globally.

• New Word:

• Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

Remember

Renan emphasizes the active will of the people and shared historical experiences as the foundation of a nation, rather than inherent biological or cultural traits.

Exam-smart

A question might ask you to explain Renan's definition of a nation and contrast it with other potential definitions (like language or race), or to discuss why he believed nations were essential for liberty.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The French Revolution of 1789 was a pivotal moment that clearly expressed the idea of nationalism.

• Shift in Sovereignty:

• Before 1789, France was an absolute monarchy.

• The revolution transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the body of French citizens.

• It proclaimed that the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

• Creating Collective Identity:

• Ideas: La patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.

• Symbols: A new French flag, the tricolour, replaced the royal standard.

• Institutions: The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly, elected by active citizens.

• Practices: New hymns, oaths, and commemoration of martyrs were established in the name of the nation.

• Administration: A centralized administrative system with uniform laws for all citizens within its territory was put in place.

• Economic Reforms: Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.

• Language: Regional dialects were discouraged, and French (spoken in Paris) became the common national language.

• Spreading the Idea:

• The revolutionaries declared it their mission to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism and help them become nations.

• Jacobin clubs were established by educated middle classes across Europe, influenced by events in France.

• French armies carried the idea of nationalism abroad as they moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s.

• Napoleon's Role:

• While Napoleon destroyed democracy in France by returning to monarchy, he incorporated revolutionary principles in administration for efficiency.

• The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code): abolished birth privileges, established equality before the law, and secured property rights. This code was exported to conquered regions.

• Reforms in Conquered Territories: Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues, removed guild restrictions, and improved transport and communication.

• Economic Benefits: Uniform laws, standardized weights/measures, and a common currency facilitated trade and capital movement, benefiting businessmen and small-scale producers.

• Mixed Reactions to French Rule:

• Initially, French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty.

• However, this turned to hostility due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into French armies.

• The administrative changes did not always go hand-in-hand with political freedom.

Remember

The French Revolution introduced the concept of the nation as a body of citizens with shared rights and a collective destiny, marking a significant departure from dynastic rule.

Exam-smart

You might be asked to explain the measures taken by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity, or to analyze the impact of Napoleonic rule on the spread of nationalism and its reception in conquered territories, using examples like the Civil Code or local reactions.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

The emergence of nationalism and the nation-state in Europe was a complex process during the nineteenth century.

• Pre-Nation-State Europe (Mid-18th Century):

• No "nation-states" as understood today.

• Areas like modern Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.

• Eastern and Central Europe were dominated by autocratic monarchies.

• Within these empires lived diverse peoples who did not necessarily share a collective identity, common culture, or language.

• Example: The Habsburg Empire:

• A patchwork of regions and peoples.

• Included: Alpine regions (Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland), Bohemia (predominantly German-speaking aristocracy), Italian-speaking Lombardy and Venetia.

• Hungary: Magyar-speaking majority with a dialect-speaking minority.

• Galicia: Polish-speaking aristocracy.

• Subject peasant peoples: Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans.

• The only unifying tie was allegiance to the emperor.

• Nationalism as a Force:

• Nationalism emerged as a force that brought sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe.

• It led to the emergence of the nation-state in place of multi-national dynastic empires.

• The nation-state is characterized by a centralized power exercising sovereign control over a defined territory, where the majority of citizens share a common identity and history.

• This common identity was not ancient but forged through struggles and actions.

Remember

Nationalism was a modern phenomenon, actively created and fostered, rather than a natural, age-old state of affairs in Europe.

Exam-smart

You could be asked to describe the political landscape of Europe before the rise of nationalism, using the Habsburg Empire as an example of a multi-national empire, and explain how nationalism challenged this structure.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

Socially and politically, the landed aristocracy was the dominant class across Europe. They owned vast estates in the countryside and town-houses, shared a common lifestyle, and often spoke French for diplomacy and social interaction. Their families were frequently linked by marriage. Despite their power, they were a numerically small group.

The majority of the population consisted of peasants. In Western Europe, land was farmed by tenants and small owners. In Eastern and Central Europe, however, large estates were worked by serfs.

The Emergence of the New Middle Class

The growth of industrial production and trade in Western and parts of Central Europe led to the expansion of towns and the rise of commercial classes. These classes derived their existence from production for the market.

Industrialisation began in England in the late 18th century but spread to France and parts of the German states in the 19th century. This process brought about new social groups:

• A working-class population.
• Middle classes comprised of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals (like doctors and lawyers).

In Central and Eastern Europe, these new middle classes were smaller in number until the late 19th century. It was primarily among the educated, liberal middle classes that the ideas of national unity, following the abolition of aristocratic privileges, gained traction.

Remember

The aristocracy, though small, held significant social and political power, while the new middle class, growing with industrialisation, became the driving force behind liberal nationalist ideas.

Exam-smart

A case study question might present a scenario describing the lifestyles and social standing of the aristocracy and then contrast it with the emerging industrialists and professionals. Students would need to identify the class each person belongs to and explain how their economic background might influence their political views on nationalism and national unity.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

In early 19th-century Europe, the ideas of national unity were closely linked to the ideology of liberalism. The word "liberalism" originates from the Latin word 'liber', meaning free.

For the emerging middle classes, liberalism represented two core principles:

• Freedom for the individual: This meant personal liberty and the right to act without undue external constraint.
• Equality of all before the law: This advocated for a legal system where everyone is treated the same, regardless of their social status or background.

Political Ideas of Liberalism

Politically, liberalism championed government by consent. This contrasted sharply with the autocratic and aristocratic systems prevalent at the time. Following the French Revolution, liberals strongly supported:

• The abolition of autocracy: An end to absolute rule by monarchs.
• The end of clerical privileges: This meant curtailing the special rights and powers of religious institutions.
• The establishment of a constitution: A formal set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed.
• The creation of representative government through parliament: Where elected officials would make laws and govern.

However, the concept of equality before the law did not always extend to universal suffrage (the right to vote for all adult citizens).

• In revolutionary France, only property-owning men could vote and be elected.
• Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights.
• Only briefly under the Jacobins did all adult males gain suffrage.
• The Napoleonic Code later restricted suffrage again and relegated women to the status of minors, under the authority of their fathers or husbands.
• Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men actively campaigned for equal political rights.

Economic Ideas of Liberalism

In the economic sphere, liberalism advocated for:

• Freedom of markets: This meant allowing businesses and individuals to operate with minimal government interference.
• Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital: This aimed to remove barriers that hindered trade and investment.

This economic aspect was a significant demand from the burgeoning middle classes.

The Zollverein: An Example of Economic Liberalism in Practice

A practical illustration of these liberal economic ideas can be seen in the German-speaking regions of the early 19th century.

• Following Napoleon's administrative reforms, these regions were organized into a confederation of 39 states.
• Each state had its own currency, and different weights and measures.
• For example, a merchant travelling between Hamburg and Nuremberg in 1833 would have to cross 11 customs barriers, paying a duty of about 5% at each.
• The measure of cloth, the 'elle', varied in length from region to region (e.g., 54.7 cm in Frankfurt to 65.6 cm in Nuremberg). This created significant difficulties and time-consuming calculations for trade.

These conditions were seen as major obstacles to economic exchange and growth by the commercial classes. They pushed for the creation of a unified economic territory that would allow for the free movement of goods, people, and capital.

Key Developments:

• In 1834, a customs union, known as the Zollverein, was established, primarily initiated by Prussia and joined by most German states.
• The Zollverein abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to just two.
• The development of a network of railways further boosted mobility and connected economic interests with national unification.
• This wave of economic nationalism reinforced the broader nationalist sentiments that were gaining momentum.

Remember

Liberalism in the 19th century was a multifaceted ideology that evolved over time. While it championed individual freedoms and equality, its application, particularly regarding suffrage, was often limited. 🎯 Exam-smart: Case study questions might present a scenario with trade barriers or differing legal systems within a region and ask how liberal ideas would address these issues, focusing on concepts like the Zollverein and the demand for unified economic territories.

A New Conservatism after 1815

Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, a conservatism movement swept across Europe.

Core Beliefs of Conservatism

Conservatives fundamentally believed in preserving:

• Established institutions: These included the monarchy, the Church, existing social hierarchies, the concept of property, and the family.
• Tradition and custom: They favoured gradual development over rapid, revolutionary change.

However, most conservatives after 1815 did not aim to recreate the pre-revolutionary society. They recognised that some changes, particularly those that strengthened the state, could be beneficial.

Conservatism and Modernisation

Conservatives understood that modernisation could be used to bolster traditional institutions. Elements of a modern state, such as:

• A modern army
• An efficient bureaucracy
• A dynamic economy
• The abolition of feudalism and serfdom

...could actually make autocratic monarchies more effective and powerful, rather than undermining them.

The Congress of Vienna (1815)

After Napoleon's defeat, the major European powers that had overthrown him convened in Vienna. Their goal was to establish a new order for Europe and undo many of the changes brought about by the French Revolution and Napoleon.

• Host: Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
• Key Powers: Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
• Outcome: The Treaty of Vienna of 1815.

Key Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

The Treaty of Vienna aimed to restore the old order and prevent future French expansion.

The New Conservative Order

The regimes established in 1815 were largely autocratic. They were characterised by:

• Intolerance of criticism and dissent: They actively suppressed any opposition.
• Censorship laws: Strict controls were imposed on newspapers, books, plays, and songs to prevent the spread of ideas questioning their legitimacy.
• Suppression of liberal ideas: They sought to curb any expression of liberty and freedom associated with the French Revolution.

Despite these efforts, the memory of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals. One of the key demands of liberal-nationalists who opposed the new conservative order was freedom of the press.

Remember

Conservatives after 1815 were not simply reactionaries trying to turn back the clock. They were pragmatic, seeking to use modern tools to strengthen their traditional power.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might present a caricature from the era (like 'The Club of Thinkers' mentioned) or an excerpt from Metternich. You would need to identify the conservative attitudes towards freedom of thought and expression depicted in the source. A question could also ask you to list the key territorial changes made at the Congress of Vienna and explain their strategic purpose.

The Revolutionaries

The period following 1815 saw a rise in secret societies formed by liberal-nationalists who feared repression from the conservative regimes established after the Vienna Congress. These revolutionaries were committed to opposing monarchies and fighting for liberty and freedom, viewing the creation of nation-states as a crucial part of this struggle.

A prominent figure among them was Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1805. He was a member of the secret society Carbonari and, after being exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution, founded two significant underground societies:

• Young Italy in Marseilles
• Young Europe in Berne

These societies aimed to unite like-minded young men from various European regions, including Poland, France, Italy, and the German states. Mazzini believed that nations were the natural units of mankind, and he envisioned a unified Italian republic as essential for Italian liberty. His anti-monarchical stance and his vision of democratic republics greatly alarmed conservatives, with Metternich famously describing him as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order."

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

In response to the efforts of conservative regimes to consolidate power, liberalism and nationalism became increasingly linked with revolution across Europe. This era saw upheavals in regions like the Italian and German states, the Ottoman Empire's provinces, Ireland, and Poland. These movements were often spearheaded by educated members of the middle class, including professors, teachers, clerks, and those in commerce.

The July Revolution (1830):

• This revolution in France overthrew the Bourbon kings who had been restored after 1815.
• It established a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head.
• Metternich’s observation, "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold," highlighted the revolution's contagious influence.

Uprising in Brussels (1830):

• Inspired by the July Revolution, Brussels witnessed an uprising that led to Belgium seceding from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The Greek War of Independence (began 1821):

• This struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire (which had ruled Greece since the 15th century) was a significant event that mobilised nationalist sentiments among the European elite.
• Nationalists in Greece received support from Greeks living abroad and from West Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists promoted Greece as the "cradle of European civilisation" and rallied support against Ottoman rule.
• The English poet Lord Byron played a role by organising funds and participating in the war, where he eventually died.
• The Treaty of Constantinople (1832) finally recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Remember

Revolutionaries were not just freedom fighters but also ideologues who believed in the creation of nation-states as the ultimate goal for achieving liberty.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might present a scenario involving a secret society or an exile, asking students to identify the underlying nationalist ideals, the opposition faced, and the role of influential figures like Mazzini, linking it to the broader context of revolutions in the 1830s and 1840s.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Nationalism's growth wasn't solely driven by wars and territorial changes. Culture played a crucial role in shaping the idea of a nation. Art, poetry, stories, and music helped to express and foster nationalist feelings.

Romanticism and National Sentiment

Romanticism was a cultural movement that emerged in the late 18th and 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, intuition, and mystical feelings over the glorification of reason and science. Romantics believed that a nation’s identity was rooted in its shared collective heritage and a common cultural past.

• Critique of Enlightenment: Romantics often criticized the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason, preferring to explore the irrational aspects of human experience.
• Focus on Emotion: They believed that true understanding and national spirit came from feelings and emotions.
• Shared Heritage: The core idea was to foster a sense of belonging through a common history and cultural traditions.

Johann Gottfried Herder and Das Volk

German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) was a key figure in Romantic thought. He argued that the true German culture was to be found within the common people, referred to as "das Volk".

• Volksgeist: Herder believed that the unique spirit of a nation, its "volksgeist", was expressed through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances.
• Nation-Building: Collecting and preserving these forms of folk culture became essential for nation-building, as they were seen as authentic expressions of the national spirit.

The Grimm Brothers: Folktales and Nation-Building

The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm exemplified the Romantic focus on folk culture for nationalist purposes.

• Collection of Folktales: They dedicated years to traveling through villages, collecting and documenting traditional fairy tales that had been passed down through generations.
• First Publication: Their first collection of tales was published in 1812.
• Nationalist Symbolism: The Grimms viewed these folktales as pure and authentic expressions of the German spirit. They saw their work on collecting folktales and developing the German language as a way to oppose French domination and build a distinct German national identity.
• Broader Impact: Their efforts helped to popularize the vernacular language and local folklore, carrying nationalist messages to a wider, often illiterate, audience.

Language and National Resistance: The Case of Poland

The importance of language as a tool for nationalist sentiment was starkly evident in Poland.

• Partitioned Nation: Poland had been partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria at the end of the 18th century, ceasing to exist as an independent state.
• Keeping Nationalism Alive: Despite the loss of political independence, national feelings were kept alive through music and language.
• Karol Kurpinski: Composers like Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggles through operas and music, transforming Polish folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
• Suppression and Resistance: After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was banned from schools, and the Russian language was imposed.
• 1831 Rebellion: An armed rebellion against Russian rule in 1831, though ultimately crushed, further fueled nationalist sentiments.
• Language as a Weapon: Following the rebellion, many members of the Polish clergy used the Polish language as a weapon of national resistance.
• Polish was used in Church gatherings and for religious instruction.
• Russian authorities punished priests and bishops who refused to use Russian by sending them to jail or Siberia.
• The use of Polish became a powerful symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Remember

Romanticism emphasized emotion and folk culture to build national identity, often as a reaction against rationalism and foreign domination.

Exam-smart

Expect questions linking Romantic art (like Delacroix's paintings) or music to nationalist movements, or asking to explain how language was used as a tool of resistance, using examples like Poland.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

The period of the 1830s in Europe was marked by severe economic hardship. This was a consequence of several interconnected factors that led to widespread unemployment and poverty.

Causes of Economic Hardship

• Population Increase: The first half of the 19th century saw a significant increase in population across Europe. This led to a situation where there were more job seekers than available jobs.
• Rural-to-Urban Migration: To find work, people migrated from rural areas to cities. This influx of people resulted in overcrowded slums and strained urban resources.
• Competition for Small Producers: In towns, small producers faced intense competition from cheaper, machine-made goods imported from England. England's more advanced industrialisation gave it a competitive edge. This was particularly damaging to the textile industry, which was often carried out in homes or small workshops and was not fully mechanised.
• Feudal Burdens: In regions where the aristocracy still held power, peasants were burdened by feudal dues and obligations, making their lives precarious.
• Bad Harvests and Food Shortages: Years of bad harvests or a sharp rise in food prices exacerbated the already difficult conditions, leading to widespread pauperism (extreme poverty) in both urban and rural areas.

The Year 1848: A Year of Revolt

The year 1848 was a prime example of how these hardships culminated in popular uprisings.

• Food Shortages and Unemployment in Paris: Widespread food shortages and unemployment drove the people of Paris to the streets. They erected barricades, forcing Louis Philippe to flee the country.
• Establishment of a Republic: The National Assembly was formed and proclaimed a Republic. Key measures included:
• Granting suffrage (the right to vote) to all adult males above 21.
• Guaranteeing the right to work.
• Setting up national workshops to provide employment.

The Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845)

A significant example of popular revolt occurred in Silesia in 1845.

• Context: Weavers in Silesia revolted against contractors. These contractors supplied raw materials and placed orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced the payment to the weavers.
• Wilhelm Wolff's Account: Journalist Wilhelm Wolff documented the events, highlighting the extreme misery of the workers. He described how contractors exploited the desperate need for jobs to lower prices.
• The Uprising: On June 4th, a large group of weavers marched to the contractor's mansion demanding higher wages. They were met with threats. A group forced their way in, smashing furniture and porcelain, and plundering the storehouse, tearing the cloth to shreds.
• Aftermath: The contractor fled but returned with the army after 24 hours. In the ensuing confrontation, eleven weavers were shot.

Remember

The revolts of 1830s and 1848 were not just about political ideas but were also driven by fundamental economic distress, particularly hunger and unemployment.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might present an excerpt describing the conditions of workers or peasants and ask to identify the underlying causes of their discontent, linking it to the broader economic situation in Europe during the early to mid-19th century. You might be asked to compare the motivations behind different revolts or comment on the role of journalists in highlighting social issues.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

In 1848, a series of revolutions swept across Europe, driven by the educated middle classes. While poor, unemployed, and starving populations also revolted, the liberal middle classes had a distinct agenda: to establish constitutional governments and achieve national unification.

Key Events and Demands:

• France: The February 1848 revolution led to the abdication of the monarch and the proclamation of a republic based on universal male suffrage.
• German Regions, Italy, Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire: In areas without established nation-states, liberals, including men and women from the middle class, united their demands for:
• Constitutionalism: A government bound by a constitution.
• National Unification: The creation of a single, unified nation-state.
• Freedom of the Press: The right to publish opinions without censorship.
• Freedom of Association: The right to form political groups and associations.
• Frankfurt Parliament (1848):
• Middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans formed political associations across German regions.
• They convened in Frankfurt to elect representatives for an all-German National Assembly.
• On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives met in the Church of St Paul to draft a constitution for a unified Germany.
• The proposed constitution aimed for a constitutional monarchy, with a monarch subject to a parliament.
• Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, rejected the crown offered on these terms, aligning with other monarchs against the assembly.
• The aristocracy and military grew stronger in their opposition, weakening the parliament's support base.
• The parliament, dominated by the middle classes, failed to address the demands of workers and artisans, leading to a loss of their support.
• Ultimately, troops were deployed, and the assembly was dissolved.

The Role of Women:

• Active Participation: Women played a significant role in the liberal movement, forming their own political associations, publishing newspapers, and participating in meetings and demonstrations.
• Denial of Suffrage: Despite their active involvement, women were denied suffrage rights (the right to vote) and were only allowed to attend the Frankfurt Parliament as observers in the visitors' gallery.
• Differing Ideologies on Women's Rights:
• Liberal Politicians (e.g., Carl Welcker): Believed in distinct roles for men and women based on perceived natural differences. Men were seen as protectors and providers for public life, while women were suited for domestic duties and family care. Equality was seen as disruptive to harmony and family dignity.
• Feminist Activists (e.g., Louise Otto-Peters): Argued for indivisible liberty, asserting that true freedom must extend to all human beings. They questioned the selective application of liberty to only one half of humanity (men).
• Anonymous Readers: Pointed out the injustice of denying political rights to women who held property and contributed to the state, while less educated men possessed the right to vote.

Remember

The 1848 revolutions highlighted the aspirations of the liberal middle classes for constitutionalism and national unification, but also exposed internal divisions, particularly regarding the extent of political rights and the inclusion of women.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might present an excerpt from Carl Welcker or Louise Otto-Peters, asking you to identify their stance on women's rights and contrast it with another viewpoint, or to explain how their arguments reflect broader liberal or emerging feminist ideologies of the time.

The Making of Germany and Italy

The revolutions of 1848, though suppressed, ultimately paved the way for changes. Monarchies began to concede to liberal-nationalist demands to avoid further unrest. This led to significant reforms in the subsequent years.

The Making of Germany

• Limited Success of 1848: While the Frankfurt Parliament failed to unite Germany, the idea of a unified German nation gained momentum.
• Prussia's Role: Prussia, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, eventually became the architect of German unification.
• Military Strength: Bismarck believed that "blood and iron" (i.e., military might and industrial power) rather than speeches and majority decisions would be the key to uniting Germany.
• Wars of Unification: Prussia engaged in a series of wars:
• 1864: War against Denmark, with Austria.
• 1866: Austro-Prussian War, leading to Austria's defeat and Prussian dominance in German affairs.
• 1870-71: Franco-Prussian War, which unified the German states against a common enemy and led to the proclamation of the German Empire.
• Proclamation of the German Empire: In 1871, Kaiser Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles. The army was instrumental in achieving this unification.

Remember

German unification was a top-down process driven by the Prussian monarchy and military, rather than a bottom-up revolution by the people, contrasting with the liberal ideals of 1848.

Exam-smart

A case study question could focus on Bismarck's policies and ask you to explain how military strength and strategic wars were used to achieve German unification, linking it to the concept of "Realpolitik".

Italy Unified

• Fragmented Italy: Before unification, Italy was divided into several states, some ruled directly by foreign powers like Austria.
• Role of Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an early advocate for a unified Italy, forming secret societies like Young Italy to spread his ideas.
• Sardinia-Piedmont's Leadership: The Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, under its king Victor Emmanuel II and his chief minister Count Camillo di Cavour, played a crucial role in the unification process.
• Cavour was a skilled diplomat who formed strategic alliances, notably with France.
• He led Sardinia-Piedmont in wars against Austria.
• Garibaldi's Contribution: Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts led a volunteer army that conquered Southern Italy and Sicily. He then handed over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II, supporting the cause of unification.
• Final Annexations: Through a combination of diplomacy, war, and popular uprisings, the various Italian states were gradually unified.
• Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy: In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy. Rome became the capital in 1871.

Remember

Italian unification was a complex process involving political maneuvering, military campaigns, and the efforts of key figures like Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini, with Sardinia-Piedmont at its core.

Exam-smart

A question might present a map of pre-unification Italy and ask you to trace the key stages of unification, identifying the roles of different leaders and states, or to analyze the challenges faced in integrating diverse regions.

Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

After 1848, the movement for nationalism in Europe shifted its focus. Instead of being led by democrats and revolutionaries, nationalist aspirations were increasingly harnessed by conservatives to strengthen state power and achieve political dominance. This transformation is clearly illustrated in the unification of Germany and Italy into nation-states.

In Germany, middle-class Germans had, in 1848, attempted to unify the various regions of the German Confederation into a single nation-state, governed by an elected parliament. However, this liberal initiative was suppressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, with the backing of the powerful large landowners of Prussia, known as Junkers.

Following this failed attempt, Prussia assumed the leadership of the national unification movement. The driving force behind this was Prussia's chief minister, Otto von Bismarck. He orchestrated the unification process with the crucial support of the Prussian army and its efficient bureaucracy.

The unification of Germany was achieved through a series of three wars fought over seven years:

• War with Denmark: This war aimed to incorporate the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
• War with Austria: This conflict established Prussian dominance over the German states, excluding Austria.
• War with France: This final war cemented Prussian leadership and led to the proclamation of the German Empire.

These wars concluded with Prussian victories, thereby completing the process of German unification. On 18 January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor. This event symbolically marked the establishment of the new German Empire, with Prussia at its core.

The process of nation-building in Germany highlighted the dominance of Prussian state power. The newly formed German state prioritized the modernisation of its currency, banking systems, and legal and judicial frameworks. The reforms and practices implemented in Prussia often served as a model for the rest of Germany, demonstrating the central role of Prussian administration in shaping the unified nation.

Remember

The unification of Germany was achieved not through liberal ideals but through a "strong hand" approach, heavily relying on the military and conservative leadership under Bismarck.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might present an image or a quote related to the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles. You would need to identify the key figures (Kaiser William I, Bismarck), the location (Hall of Mirrors, Versailles), and the significance of the event as a demonstration of Prussian military and political power in achieving national unification, contrasting it with earlier liberal attempts.

Italy Unified

Before the mid-19th century, Italy was politically fragmented, split into various dynastic states and parts of the multi-national Habsburg Empire. Only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian royal family. The northern regions were under Austrian control, the central region was governed by the Pope, and the southern regions were ruled by Spanish Bourbon kings. Even the Italian language had significant regional differences, lacking a single common form.

Early Nationalist Efforts

In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini envisioned a unified Italian republic and founded a secret society called Young Italy to promote his ideas. However, his attempts at revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 failed.

The Role of Sardinia-Piedmont

Following the failures of revolutionary movements, the responsibility of unifying Italy fell to Sardinia-Piedmont. Its ruler, King Victor Emmanuel II, along with his chief minister Cavour, aimed to unify the Italian states. For the ruling elite of Sardinia-Piedmont, a unified Italy promised economic development and political dominance.

Cavour's Diplomatic Strategy

Cavour, a key leader in the unification movement, was not a revolutionary or a democrat. He was a wealthy and educated member of the Italian elite who was more fluent in French than Italian. Through tactful diplomatic alliances, particularly with France, Cavour skillfully maneuvered Sardinia-Piedmont to defeat Austrian forces in 1859.

Garibaldi's Contribution

Alongside regular troops, Giuseppe Garibaldi led a large contingent of armed volunteers. In 1860, his forces marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They successfully gained the support of local peasants to expel the Spanish rulers.

Proclamation of Unified Italy

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was declared the king of united Italy.

Challenges to Unification

Despite the political unification, a significant portion of the Italian population, characterized by high rates of illiteracy, remained largely unaware of the liberal-nationalist ideology. Many peasants in southern Italy, who had supported Garibaldi, did not even know what "Italia" was, believing "La Talia" to be Victor Emmanuel's wife.

Remember

The unification of Italy was a complex process involving diplomatic maneuvering by Cavour, military action by Garibaldi, and the leadership of Sardinia-Piedmont, but a significant part of the population remained largely uninformed about the nationalist goals.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might present a map of Italy before and after unification, asking to identify regions that joined at different stages or to explain the roles of key figures like Cavour and Garibaldi in the unification process, emphasizing their different approaches (diplomacy vs. popular support).

The Strange Case of Britain

The formation of the nation-state in Britain was not the result of a sudden revolution but a long and gradual process. Unlike other nations, there was no pre-existing British nation before the eighteenth century. The inhabitants of the British Isles primarily identified with their distinct ethnic groups: English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish, each possessing its own cultural and political traditions.

However, the English nation, due to its increasing wealth, importance, and power, gradually extended its influence over the other groups. The English Parliament, which had gained power from the monarchy in 1688 after a prolonged conflict, became the central instrument in forging a nation-state with England at its core.

Act of Union (1707)

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland was a pivotal moment. It effectively meant that England imposed its dominance over Scotland, leading to the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. The British Parliament became dominated by English members, and Scotland's distinct culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Scottish Highlanders, in particular, faced severe repression. They were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language, wear their national dress, and many were forcibly removed from their homeland.

Ireland's Fate

Ireland experienced a similar subjugation. Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants, the English supported the Protestant minority in establishing dominance over the largely Catholic population. Catholic revolts against British rule were brutally suppressed. Following a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen in 1798, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801. A new ‘British nation’ was constructed through the promotion of a dominant English culture. Key symbols of this new Britain, such as the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language, were actively promoted, while the older national identities were relegated to subordinate roles within the union.

New Word:

• Ethnic: Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with or claims.

Visualising the Nation

Representing an abstract concept like a nation through a concrete image posed a challenge for artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. They found a solution by personifying the nation, portraying it as a person, typically a female figure. This female allegory did not represent any specific woman but aimed to give a tangible form to the abstract idea of the nation.

During the French Revolution, artists used female allegories to represent concepts like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic. For instance, Liberty was depicted with a red cap or broken chains, and Justice as a blindfolded woman with weighing scales.

In the nineteenth century, similar female allegories were created to represent nations:

• Marianne became the allegory for the French nation, her name chosen from a popular Christian name to emphasize the idea of a people's nation. Her attributes, like the red cap, tricolour, and cockade, were drawn from Liberty and the Republic. Statues of Marianne were erected in public spaces and her image appeared on coins and stamps to foster national unity and identification.
• Germania emerged as the allegory for the German nation. She was often depicted wearing a crown of oak leaves, symbolizing heroism, as the oak tree represented strength in German culture.

Remember

The use of allegories like Marianne and Germania was a deliberate strategy to instill a sense of national identity and unity among the people by providing a visual and symbolic representation of the abstract nation.

Exam-smart

Questions might present images of Marianne or Germania and ask you to interpret the symbols and their historical context, linking them to the nationalist movements of the 18th and 19th centuries.

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the late nineteenth century, nationalism had transformed from an idealistic, liberal-democratic sentiment into a narrow creed with limited objectives. Nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and prone to conflict.

Major European powers exploited the nationalist aspirations of subject peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims. This led to intensified nationalist tensions, particularly in the Balkans.

The Balkans, a region of diverse geography and ethnicity (including modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro), was largely under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of romantic nationalism and the weakening of the Ottoman Empire made this region highly volatile.

While the Ottoman Empire attempted modernization with limited success, its European subject nationalities gradually broke away and declared independence. These Balkan peoples used history to assert their claims for independence, often framing their struggles as a fight to reclaim lost sovereignty.

The region became a hotbed of conflict due to:

1. Inter-Slavic Rivalry: Different Slavic nationalities struggled for self-definition and independence, leading to intense competition and territorial disputes among Balkan states.
2. Great Power Rivalry: Major European powers like Russia, Germany, England, and Austria-Hungary were deeply involved in the Balkans, vying for influence, trade, colonies, and military dominance. This rivalry exacerbated the local conflicts and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the First World War.

Nationalism, when combined with imperialism, ultimately led Europe towards disaster in 1914.

Simultaneously, many countries colonized by European powers in the nineteenth century began to resist imperial domination. These anti-imperial movements, while developing their own unique forms of nationalism, were inspired by the idea of forming independent nation-states and fostering collective national unity against their colonizers. The concept of organizing societies into nation-states gained acceptance as a natural and universal model.

Remember

Nationalism shifted from a liberal, unifying force to a narrow, aggressive ideology that, coupled with imperialism, was a major cause of conflict in Europe.

Exam-smart

Case studies on the Balkans might be presented, requiring you to explain the interplay of ethnic nationalism, the decline of empires, and great power rivalries in leading to conflict. You might be asked to analyze a political cartoon depicting imperial dominance or nationalist tensions.