Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation — Notes

Why Should We Study Early Human History?

The study of early human history is crucial for understanding the long and complex process of human evolution, both biologically and culturally. It helps us connect our present lives to the past, explaining how we became the species we are today through adaptation to changing environments.

Biological Evolution refers to the gradual physical and genetic changes that transformed our early ancestors into modern humans (Homo sapiens). Cultural Evolution, on the other hand, describes how humans adapted to their surroundings, developing tools, technologies, and ways of life to survive.

Key Insights from Studying Early Human History:

• Understanding Human Origins and Evolution: It traces the journey from our earliest ancestors to modern humans, revealing the physical and cognitive changes that occurred over millions of years.
• Appreciating Adaptation and Innovation: It shows how early humans developed tools, techniques, and technologies to overcome environmental challenges and exploit natural resources, leading to advancements like agriculture.
• Recognizing the Foundation of Civilisation: The ability to produce surplus food and goods, a direct result of these early innovations, laid the groundwork for the development of complex societies and civilisations.
• Learning from the Past: By studying archaeological evidence like tools and fossils, we gain insights into the lives, thoughts, and social structures of people who lived long before written records.

The Importance of Archaeological Evidence:

Since writing emerged relatively late in human history (around 5000 years ago), most of our knowledge about early humans comes from archaeological evidence. This includes:

• Artefacts: Tools, implements, pottery, and other material objects made by humans.
• Fossils: Preserved remains or traces of ancient humans, animals, or plants that have turned into stone over millennia.

Archaeologists study these findings to reconstruct how early humans lived, their skills, and their interactions with the environment.

Before and After Written History:

The vast majority of human history (over 99%) occurred before written records were common. The last 5000 years, which include the development of writing and the rise of early civilisations, form a much smaller fraction.

Who Were Our Human Ancestors?

Our human ancestors are known as hominins. These include modern humans and earlier human-like species. The earliest human settlements were in Africa, Asia, and Europe (the 'Old World').

• Earliest Tool Makers: Around 3.3 million years ago, an early ancestor made the first stone tools, marking the beginning of distinct "human behaviour." These tools acted as 'extra-corporal limbs', extending human capabilities.
• Homo habilis: Meaning "handy man," lived in Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Kenya) 2-6 million years ago and made chopper stone tools.
• Homo erectus: Meaning "upright man," evolved in Africa around 2 million years ago. They were the first hominins to migrate out of Africa, spreading into Asia and Europe. They invented handaxes and cleavers.
• Homo neanderthalensis: Lived in Europe and Southwest Asia until about 40,000 years ago and created Middle Palaeolithic flake tools.
• Homo sapiens: Modern humans, evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and are now found worldwide. They developed more complex technologies.

Remember

The ability to create and use tools is a defining characteristic of human ancestors, differentiating them from other animals. 🎯 Exam-smart: A question might present images of different hominin skulls and ask students to identify evolutionary changes or label a specific ancestor based on tool types described in a passage.

Periods in Early Human History

Early human history is broadly divided into periods based on technological advancements, especially in tool-making, and changes in lifestyle and settlement patterns. These stages help us understand the gradual evolution of human society.

Palaeolithic Hunter–Gatherers

The Palaeolithic period, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the earliest and longest phase of human history. It is characterized by a hunting-gathering lifestyle and the use of simple stone tools.

• Timeline: This period spans from about 2 million years ago until around 10,000 BCE. In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlements are dated to approximately 2 million years ago. Sites like Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Isampur (Karnataka) provide evidence of early human activity.
• Tools: Early humans used core tools (large, unshaped stones) and later developed flake tools (made from chips struck off a larger stone).
• Lower Palaeolithic: Tools included handaxes, cleavers, and choppers made from quartzite and limestone. These were used for tasks like chopping meat, digging up roots, and scraping animal hides.
• Middle Palaeolithic: Tool technology advanced with the creation of smaller and more refined flake tools, such as scrapers, borers, and points. These allowed for more efficient hunting.
• Upper Palaeolithic: This stage saw the invention of blades, microblades, and the bow and arrow. Humans also began using burins (engravers) to carve on bone and shell, and made beads from stone, bone, and shell.
• Lifestyle: Humans were nomadic, moving from place to place in search of food (plants and animals) and shelter. They lived in caves and rock shelters, and evidence suggests they developed symbolic communication, including cave paintings and body decoration. These developments are associated with Homo sapiens, our direct ancestors.

Remember

The Palaeolithic period is the longest phase of human history, marked by the development of stone tools and a nomadic hunting-gathering lifestyle.

Exam-smart

Case study questions might describe a collection of stone tools found at an archaeological site. You would need to identify the period based on the types of tools (e.g., handaxes vs. blades) and infer the lifestyle and capabilities of the people who made them.

Periods in Early Human History (Overview Table)

Early human history is often divided into several key periods, each representing significant technological and social advancements.

Remember

Each period builds upon the technological and social foundations of the preceding one, leading to increasingly complex human societies.

Exam-smart

You might be given a description of a society's tools and way of life and asked to identify which historical period it belongs to. For example, a description of polished stone axes and early farming would point to the Neolithic period.

Mesolithic Hunter–Gatherers

The Mesolithic Age, also known as the Middle Stone Age, began around 12,000 years ago. This period marked a significant transition in human history, driven by a warming global climate. As the ice sheets receded, the Earth's environment changed, leading to the expansion of forests and grasslands. This created new landscapes rich in diverse resources.

Environmental and Resource Changes

• Warmer Climate: The shift from the Ice Age to a warmer period fundamentally altered the environment.
• New Landscapes: Forests and grasslands replaced ice-covered areas, creating new habitats.
• Expanded Resources: These new environments offered a greater variety of food sources, including:
• Small game animals
• Fish
• Edible wild grains

This abundance of resources is believed to have contributed to the first population explosion in human history.

Adaptation and Tools

The changing environment necessitated adaptations in human behaviour and technology. The development of microlithic tools was a hallmark of this era.

• Microlithic Tools: These were small, finely crafted stone tools, often made from materials like flint and chert. They were typically blades, scrapers, and points, much smaller than the tools of the previous Palaeolithic period.
• Composite Tools: Microliths were not usually used on their own. They were often hafted or set into handles made of bone, wood, or antlers to create more effective tools. This allowed for greater precision and efficiency.
• Burins (Engravers): A distinctive type of Mesolithic tool used for engraving symbols on bone and shell (like ostrich eggs).
• Bone Points: Used for fishing and hunting.
• Subsistence Economy: The availability of aquatic resources led to a significant focus on fishing, which became a mainstay of the Mesolithic diet. People gathered both marine and freshwater food.

Habitat and Art

Mesolithic people adopted new living strategies and expressed themselves through art.

• New Habitats: They frequently occupied caves and rock shelters, which offered protection from the elements.
• Art Flourished: Artistic expression continued and evolved.
• Cave Paintings: Sites like Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are famous for their painted rock shelters, which showcase Mesolithic art alongside earlier human occupation. These paintings often depict scenes of daily life, hunting, and dancing.

Remember

The Mesolithic Age is characterized by the transition to warmer climates, the development of microlithic tools, a diversified diet including fishing, and the continued practice of rock art.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might show an image of microlithic tools or a rock painting from Bhimbetka. You would need to identify the period, explain the function of the tools (e.g., hafting for better use, burins for engraving), and relate the art to the lifestyle and environment of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.

The Neolithic Revolution

The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the Neolithic Period, marked a fundamental shift in human history from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a settled agricultural one. This transition, which began around 10,000 BCE in different parts of the world at different times, was driven by a deeper understanding of seasons and food resources.

Key developments during the Neolithic Revolution included:

• Domestication of Plants and Animals: Humans began to cultivate select plants and domesticate animals, bringing them under their control. This involved selective breeding and husbandry to develop specific traits and ensure a stable food supply.
• Food Production and Processing Tools: The focus shifted from tools for hunting to tools for farming and processing food. This included new types of stone tools suited for agricultural tasks.
• Development of Earthenware Pottery: People began creating pottery in various shapes and sizes for storing food, water, and for cooking. This innovation was crucial for managing surplus food.
• Establishment of Village Settlements: The ability to produce food consistently led to the formation of permanent settlements, laying the groundwork for villages and, eventually, cities.

The shift to agriculture was not uniform globally. Different regions adopted farming at different times and focused on different crops and livestock, as illustrated by charts showing the gradual transition across various geographical areas.

Remember

The Neolithic Revolution is considered a "revolution" because it fundamentally changed human society, leading to settled lifestyles, population growth, and the development of civilization, not because it was a violent overthrow.

Exam-smart

Case studies might present data on the types of tools found at a Neolithic site and ask students to infer the primary activities of the people (e.g., agricultural tools suggest farming). They might also be asked to explain the significance of domestication for human settlement patterns.

Neolithic Period in Indian Subcontinent

In the Indian subcontinent, the adoption of agriculture varied regionally.

• Mehrgarh (Northwest): Located on the Bolan River (present-day Pakistan), Mehrgarh is the oldest known Neolithic site in the subcontinent, dating back to approximately 7000 BCE.

• It was the earliest agricultural village.

• People built houses from sun-dried bricks and stored grains in granaries.

• They practiced burial rituals and created ornaments from semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli and carnelian.

• Crops cultivated: Wheat and barley.

• Animals raised: Sheep, goats, and the Indian Zebu bull.

• Mehrgarh also shows the early development of copper objects, marking the transition into the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age) around 4000 BCE. This period laid the foundation for the later Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation.

• General Neolithic Life (by 2500 BCE): By this time, Neolithic agricultural communities had spread across most of the subcontinent.

• Key activities: Cattle, sheep, and goat herding, alongside cultivation of cereals, millets, and pulses.

• These communities often interacted with contemporary Chalcolithic cultures.

• Sanganakallu (dating to 2000 BCE) is another significant Neolithic site.

Remember

Mehrgarh is crucial as it represents the earliest evidence of settled agriculture and village life in the Indian subcontinent, predating the major Bronze Age civilizations.

Exam-smart

Questions might ask to compare the lifestyle at Mehrgarh with earlier hunter-gatherer societies, focusing on housing, food sources, and social practices. Identifying specific domesticated animals or crops from the region would also be tested.

Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation

The Neolithic way of life that emerged in Mehrgarh eventually spread, leading to the development of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation (also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation) by approximately 2600 BCE. This transition was a significant step towards urbanization.

Key stages and developments leading to the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation:

• Spread and Chalcolithic Transition: The Neolithic settlements spread into the Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī river basins. Around 4000 BCE, some communities mastered copper extraction, leading to the establishment of early Chalcolithic sites. This marked the beginning of the Bronze Age in the subcontinent.
• Enhancement of Productivity: The use of copper tools in the fertile alluvial plains significantly boosted agricultural productivity and led to increased prosperity.
• Regional Pottery Styles: This period saw a large-scale production of pottery with diverse regional styles in shapes and painted designs, indicating craft specialization.
• Early Harappan Stage (Pre-Harappan Phase): Radiocarbon dates suggest that some sites in the Sarasvatī river belt, like Bhirrana and Kunal, show a Pre-Harappan phase starting between 7000 and 5500 BCE.
• Many regional pottery and craft styles evolved over time, becoming standard features of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation by 2500 BCE.
• This stage is often referred to as the Early Harappan phase.
• Continuity: Evidence shows continuity in pottery traditions, the use of semi-precious stone beads, shell bangles, terracotta objects, and copper working.
• Emerging Innovations: Developments like building perimeter walls around settlements, the use of seals, and the beginnings of the Harappan script likely originated in the Early Harappan stage.
• Arts and Crafts: The Harappans were skilled artisans.
• Pottery: A major craft product that boosted the economy.
• Other crafts: Copper work, shell work, and the production of semi-precious stone beads. Evidence for bead production is found at sites like Harappa, Kunal, and Datrana.
• Forerunners to Script: Graffiti on pottery and simple seals with motifs from early Harappan sites are considered precursors to the developed script and inscribed seals of the mature civilization.
• Agricultural Practices: At sites like Kalibangan, evidence of ploughed fields with horizontal and vertical furrows indicates double cropping (cultivating both Rabi and Kharif seasons), a practice still followed today.
• Weights and Measures: The Harappans had a sophisticated and standardized system of weights and measures, crucial for trade. They used a binary multiple system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16) for lighter units and multiples of ten for heavier ones. Cubical stone weights are found at many sites.

The technological advancements and economic integration during the Early Harappan period were instrumental in the emergence of the advanced urban centers of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation.

Remember

The Sindhu-Sarasvatī Civilisation emerged from earlier Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures in the region, showing a clear cultural continuity and gradual development of complex urban societies.

Exam-smart

A source-based question might provide an image of Harappan seals or stone weights and ask students to explain their significance for trade, administration, or social organization. A case study on the Early Harappan phase might focus on identifying continuity with the mature Harappan civilization based on material evidence.

Bronze Age Civilisations Outside India

The Bronze Age was a period in human history when bronze—an alloy primarily of copper and tin—was the hardest metal available. This technological advancement allowed for the creation of stronger tools and weapons, leading to significant societal changes and the rise of complex civilisations.

These early civilisations often developed in river valleys because rivers provided:

• Freshwater for drinking and agriculture.
• Fertile soil (alluvial deposits) for farming.
• Transportation routes for trade and communication.

While the Harappan (Sindhu-Sarasvati) civilisation flourished along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers, other major Bronze Age civilisations emerged simultaneously in different parts of the world. These included:

• Mesopotamian Civilisation: Located in West Asia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• Egyptian Civilisation: Developed along the Nile River in Northeast Africa.
• Chinese Civilisation: Emerged in the Huang He (Yellow River) basin in East Asia.

Characteristics of Early Bronze Age Civilisations

These contemporary civilisations shared several key characteristics, reflecting the broader trends of the Bronze Age:

Interconnections and Differences

• Proximity and Trade: Mesopotamia and the Harappan (Sindhu-Sarasvati) region were geographically closer, leading to strong evidence of contact and trade between them. This exchange likely involved goods, ideas, and possibly technologies.
• Limited Direct Contact: While contemporary, there is less tangible evidence of direct contact between the Harappan civilisation and the Egyptian or Chinese civilisations. Their development might have been more independent, influenced by their local environments and resources.
• River Valley Dependency: All these major early civilisations depended heavily on rivers, highlighting the critical role of water resources in shaping early human societies and fostering the conditions necessary for civilisation to emerge and thrive.

Remember

The emergence of complex societies in the Bronze Age was facilitated by technological advancements (like metallurgy) and organisational skills (like urban planning, governance, and writing), often centred around vital river systems.

Exam-smart

A case study question might present you with a description of an archaeological find (e.g., a cuneiform tablet from Mesopotamia, a hieroglyphic inscription from Egypt, or a bronze vessel from China) and ask you to identify which civilisation it belongs to, or to infer its purpose and significance based on your knowledge of Bronze Age characteristics like writing, trade, or religion. You would need to connect the artefact's features to the specific context of these ancient societies.

Mesopotamian Civilisation

Mesopotamia, meaning "land between the rivers," refers to the region in West Asia drained by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This area, now largely Iraq and Kuwait, was a fertile crescent of land with high agricultural potential. Farming began here around 12000 years ago, and the arrival of copper tools around 4500 BCE significantly boosted agriculture and other economic activities, leading to the spread of farming across the river plains.

From approximately 3500 BCE onwards, several large cities in Mesopotamia developed into city-states, sovereign entities centred around a city and ruling surrounding territories. Four major city-based civilisations flourished here: the Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian.

The Sumerians

The Sumerian civilisation, originating in Sumer (modern southern Iraq), was the earliest to develop into a city-based civilization, with major cities like Ur.

• Innovations:

• Developed the first system of dams and canals for irrigation.

• Pioneered the use of mud bricks and burnt bricks for construction.

• Invented the wheeled cart and sailboat.

• Established a number system based on 60, leading to concepts like the 60-minute hour and 360-degree circle.

• Developed cuneiform writing around 3200 BCE.

• Religion and Society:

• Worshipped multiple gods associated with natural forces.

• Built grand ziggurats, stepped, pyramid-shaped temples, which were centres of religious, economic, and social life.

• The temple authority controlled economic activities like agriculture and trade.

• A clear social hierarchy existed, with priests and priestesses holding significant status.

• Writing System (Cuneiform):

• Cuneiform is one of the earliest writing systems, developed by the Sumerians.

• It used a wedge-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay tablets.

• The word "cuneiform" comes from the Latin "cuneus," meaning "wedge."

• Cuneiform tablets recorded myths, epics, laws, and daily activities of artisans and farmers.

• It was widely used by different city-states by 3000 BCE.

• Unlike the Harappan script, cuneiform has been deciphered, providing rich insights into Mesopotamian life.

Remember

Cuneiform is named after the wedge-shaped marks used in its script.

Exam-smart

Questions might ask you to infer social structure or economic organisation from descriptions of ziggurats and temple activities, or to compare the significance of deciphered vs. undeciphered scripts.

The Akkadians

Around 2334 BCE, the Akkadian city-state rose to prominence, overshadowing the Sumerians. They spoke Akkadian, a different language, but used the same cuneiform script.

• Empire Building: The Akkadians established the world's first dynastic empire, consolidating power over various Mesopotamian regions.
• Trade: Akkadian records, particularly from King Sargon, detail trade with Dilmun (modern Bahrain), Magan (Oman peninsula), and Meluhha (believed to be the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation). They traded goods like semiprecious stones, ivory, timber, and gold dust.
• Literature: This period also saw the evolution of creative literature, including epics like the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Remember

The Akkadians created the first known empire, demonstrating a shift from city-states to larger political entities.

Exam-smart

You might be given a map showing trade routes and asked to identify the civilisations involved based on goods traded and location, or to explain the significance of Akkadian trade connections with other contemporary civilisations.

The Assyrians

The Akkadian empire declined around 2154 BCE, and Assyria, a city-state in northern Mesopotamia, rose to power. The Assyrian civilisation dominated from roughly 2154 BCE until the early 1700s BCE, expanding its influence across Mesopotamia and into neighbouring regions.

The Babylonians

Concurrently, Babylonia, a city-state in central Mesopotamia, gained dominance from around 1900 BCE.

• Hammurabi's Reign: The Babylonian glory peaked under King Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE). He expanded his small city-state into a large empire.
• Code of Hammurabi: Hammurabi's most significant contribution was compiling the Code of Hammurabi, a comprehensive set of laws for civil and social conduct. This code served as a foundation for many future legal systems.
• Decline: By the end of the 1400s BCE, Babylonian prominence waned due to attacks by groups like the Hittites, who mastered new technologies. Environmental degradation and internal issues also weakened their control.

Remember

The Code of Hammurabi is a landmark in legal history, showcasing early attempts at codified law.

Exam-smart

You might be presented with excerpts from the Code of Hammurabi and asked to explain principles of justice or social order in ancient Babylonia, or to compare Hammurabi's laws with modern legal concepts.

Hittites: These were Indo-European people who established a powerful empire in Anatolia (modern Turkey) around the second millennium BCE. They were notable for their mastery of iron metallurgy, which gave them a military advantage.

Egyptian Civilisation

Egyptian civilisation is one of the world's earliest and most influential. It flourished along the River Nile, a vital source of water and fertile soil. The annual flooding of the Nile, known as inundation, deposited rich mud called 'kemet' (meaning 'the black'), which was excellent for agriculture. This fertile land was referred to as Kemet by the Egyptians.

The development of agriculture and the need to manage the Nile's floods led to collective efforts in digging ditches and constructing dams. These cooperative efforts fostered the growth of local government and an administrative class.

Rise of Pharaohs and Pyramids

Powerful rulers known as Pharaohs emerged to govern Egypt. After their death, pharaohs were buried in mastabas, rectangular structures. Over time, these mastabas were stacked to create pyramids, the most famous example being the step pyramid at Saqqara.

The construction of pyramids was driven by the Egyptian belief in the ka, a spiritual double that lived on after death. This necessitated the preservation of the body through mummification.

Mummification involved:

• Removing internal organs (except the heart).
• Drying the body with natron.
• Oiling and wrapping the body in linen strips.
• Placing the body in a coffin and burying it with rituals.

Egyptian Society and Daily Life

Egyptian society was structured hierarchically, with the Pharaoh at the apex, followed by government officials, nobles, and priests. Below them were free landholders, artisans, and merchants, and at the bottom were serfs and slaves.

[Image: Social hierarchy Pyramid Fig. 4.32]

Ancient Egyptians engaged in various leisure activities, including swimming, canoeing, playing board games, music, and dancing. Festivals were central to their culture, dedicated to gods and the pharaoh's rule. The Sed festival, held every 30 years of a king's reign, was a significant event.

Egyptian women generally enjoyed more rights than their Greek or Roman counterparts, including the ability to own property and run businesses. Cleopatra, a famous queen, exemplifies this.

[Image: Cleopatra on a temple wall Fig. 4.34]

Egyptian Writing and Calendar

Egyptian writing, known as hieroglyphics, was a complex system. The Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799, was crucial in deciphering this script, as it contained the same text in three different scripts, including Greek. Jean-François Champollion deciphered the Egyptian script in 1822.

Papyrus, a writing material made from the papyrus plant, was used for record-keeping. The Papyrus Ebers is a notable example, detailing over 700 cures and spells for Egyptian medicine.

The Egyptian calendar was based on the rising of Sirius (Dog Star) and had 365 days, divided into three seasons of four months each: Inundation (autumn), Peret (winter), and Shemu (summer). This calendar, while accurate, was approximately ¼ day shorter than the actual solar year.

Remember

The Egyptian calendar's accuracy, despite being slightly short, highlights their advanced understanding of astronomy.

Exam-smart

A question might provide an image of the Rosetta Stone or describe the process of its discovery and decipherment, asking about its significance in understanding ancient Egyptian civilization.

Chinese Civilisation

The Chinese civilisation flourished along the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze River. Early Chinese Neolithic cultures in these valleys date back to around 7000 BCE. By 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper/bronze metallurgy led to the Bronze Age, with urban centers emerging around 1600 BCE.

China's history is organized into dynasties. Notable Bronze Age dynasties include the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) and the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). By 600 BCE, iron became widely used, marking the Iron Age. The name 'China' is thought to derive from the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), which unified the country.

Chinese Writing, Oracle Bones, and Crafts

Early information about China comes from oracle bones, animal bones and tortoise shells inscribed with symbols. These were heated until they cracked, and the patterns of cracks were interpreted, often for divination. The Chinese script is logographic, with characters representing words or meaningful units of language.

[Image: Chinese oracle carvings on bone Fig. 4.36]

Chinese artisans excelled in crafting jade objects and figurines, used for ritual or prestige. They also mastered bronze metallurgy to create weapons, tools, and elaborate ritual vessels.

[Image: Jade dragon and bronze vessel Fig. 4.37]

The Great Wall and Silk

The Great Wall of China was built over centuries, starting around 680 BCE, as a defence against nomadic tribes. It was expanded and repaired until the 17th century CE.

Silk was a significant craft from the Neolithic period. During the Han dynasty (around the 2nd century BCE), silk became a major item of external trade, leading to the establishment of the Silk Route.

Remember

The Great Wall's construction over such a long period signifies a continuous need for defence and a testament to engineering capabilities.

Exam-smart

A question might present a visual of a Chinese character and ask students to explain its logographic nature or present a scenario about trade on the Silk Road, linking it to Chinese civilisation.

Chinese Society and Economy

By 1500 BCE, Chinese society was highly stratified. During the Zhou dynasty, a metal-based medium of exchange appeared, leading to a money economy by the 5th century BCE. China was also the first country to develop paper currency and civil services through public examination.

Zhou rulers were considered appointees of heaven, but could be removed if the people did not prosper. Public officials were chosen through rigorous examinations in subjects like archery, horsemanship, and music.